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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 21
What is a Nation? Territories, States, And Citizens, 1848-1871
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
Key events
1848 Revolutions
Mexican-American War
Key themes
1848 as high point of the age of revolution
Nationalism and nation building
Political reform: government and citizens
American Civil War
Unification of Italy and Germany
Nationalism and Revolution in 1848
Central and eastern Europe
Roots of revolution: social antagonisms, economic crises, political change
Liberal goals
Representative government
An end to privilege
Economic development
National unity
What makes a nation? Germany in 1848
The German Confederation
Created at the Congress of Vienna
Loose organization of thirty-eight states, including Austria and Prussia
Intended to provide common defense but no executive power
Reforms
Imposed from above
The reconstitution of the army
Officer recruitment based on merit (still drawn from the Junkers)
The abolition of serfdom and the estate system (1807)
Expanded facilities for primary and secondary education
University of Berlin founded
Prussia
Tried to establish itself as the leading independent national power
Zollverein (1834)
Established as a customs union
Established free trade among German states
Uniform tariffs
By the 1840s, it included all German states except Austria
A potential market of 34 million people
Political clubs
Students and other radicals joined with middle-class reform groups
New demands for representative government
Attacked autocracy and bureaucratic authority
Frederick Wilhelm IV (1795-1861, r. 1840-1861)
Made gestures toward the liberal cause
His regime reverted to authoritarianism
Crushed revolt of Silesian weavers
Openly opposed constitutionalism
Shaken by violence, the Kaiser finally capitulated
The Frankfurt Assembly and German nationhood
Most delegates represented the professional classes
Most were moderate liberals
Desired a constitution for a liberal, unified Germany
Problems
No resources, no sovereign power, and no single legal code
The nationalist question
The "Great German" position and "Small Germany"
The Assembly accepted the "Small Germany" solution
Left out all lands of the Habsburgs
In April 1849 offered the crown to Frederick Wilhelm IV, who refused it
Kaiser wanted the crown and larger state on his terms alone
The delegates left the Assembly disillusioned
Perhaps liberal and nationalist goals were incompatible
Many delegates fled to the United States
Popular revolution
Peasants ransacked tax offices and burned castles
Workers smashed machines
Formation of citizen militias
Newspapers and political clubs
Peoples against empire: The Habsburg lands
Ethnic and language groups
Germans, Czechs, Magyars, Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians
Nationalist sentiment strongest among Polish aristocrats
Habsburgs played Polish serfs against Polish lords
Hungarian nationalist claims advanced by the small Magyar aristocracy
Lajos Kossuth (1802-1894)
Member of the lower nobility
Published transcripts of parliamentary debates
Campaigned for independence and a separate Hungarian parliament
Wanted to bring politics to the people (staged political "banquets")
Pan-Slavism
Russians, Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, and Bulgarians
Desire for a union of Slavic-speaking people
Resented oppressive Russian rule
Austria and Hungary in 1848: springtime of peoples and autumn of empire
Kossuth stepped up his campaigns against the Metternich system of Habsburg autocracy and control
Demanded representative institutions
Autonomy for the Hungarian Magyar nation
Vienna: popular movement of students and artisans
Demanded political and social reforms
Built barricades and attacked the imperial palace
Central Committee of Citizens
Metternich fled to Britain
Government concessions
Male suffrage and single house of representatives
Withdrew troops from Vienna
Worked toward the abolition of serfdom
Yielded to Czech demands in Bohemia
Italian liberals and nationalists attacked empire's territories in Naples and Venice
The paradox of nationalism
No cultural or ethnic majority could declare its independence without prompting rebellion elsewhere
Student- and worker-led insurrection in Prague (May 1848)
Austrian troops sent to restore order
Slav congress disbands
The March Laws
Hungarian parliament abolished serfdom and noble privilege
Established freedom of the press and of religion
Changed suffrage requirements, enfranchised small-property holders
Provoked opposition from Croats, Serbs, and Romanians within Hungary
Austrian government appointed anti- Magyar Josip Jelacic as governor of Croatia
Kossuth severed all ties between Hungary and Austria
Franz Joseph asked Nicholas I of Russia for military support
The Hungarian revolt was crushed (August 1849)
Liberal government capitulated on October 31, 1849
Reestablished censorship
Disbanded the National Guard and student organizations
Twenty-five revolutionary leaders went to the firing squad
Kossuth exiled himself to Turkey
The early stages of Italian unification in 1848
A patchwork of small states
Piedmont-Sardinia, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Lombard and Venetia controlled by Austria
Tuscany, Parma, and Modena ruled by the Habsburgs
Giuseppi Mazzini (1805-1872)
Former member of the Carbonari
Founded the Young Italy Society (1831)
Anti-Austrian
Favored constitutional reforms
Dedicated to Italian unification
Mission was to bring democracy to the world
Invaded SardiniaMazzini driven to exile in England
The liberal impulse
Many shared Mazzini's commitment but not his methods
Hoped for a merger of existing governments into a constitutional monarchy
1848 raised hopes for political and social change and Italian unification
The risorgimentoItalian resurgence
Building the Nation-State
Nationalism after 1848
States and governments took the initiative
Alarmed by revolutionary ferment
Promoted economic development and social and political reform
France under Napoléon III
Believed in personal rule and a centralized state
Control of finances, the army, and foreign affairs
An elected Assembly had no real power
Aimed to put the countryside under the rule of the modern state
Undermined traditional elites, fashioned a new relationship with the people
Economic changes
Took steps to develop the economy
Faith in the ability of industrial expansion to bring prosperity and national glory
Passed new limited-liability laws
Signed a free-trade agreement with England (1860)
Founded the Crédit Mobilier
Reluctantly permitted trade unions and the legalization of strikes
Paris and Napoléon III
Massive rebuilding of the medieval infrastructure
Financed by the Crédit Mobilier
Erected thirty-four thousand new buildings
New water pipes and sewer lines
Wholesale renovation did not benefit everyone
Aggressive foreign policy
Victorian England and the Second Reform Bill (1867)
British government faced demands to extend the franchise beyond the middle classes
Industrial expansion had created a "labor aristocracy" of skilled workers
Building, engineering, and textile industries
Favored collective self-help through cooperative societies and trade unions
Collected funds against old age and unemployment
Education as a tool for advancement
The need to vote
Championed by middle-class reformers
Responsible members of society deserved the vote and direct representation
The Dissenters
Denied civil and political rights
Could not attend Oxford or Cambridge
Resented paying taxes to the Church of England
Campaign for a new reform bill
Working-class leaders joined middle-class dissidents
Backed by Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)
Political life would be improved by including the "aristocrats of labor"
Great Reform Bill (1867)
Doubled the franchise
Men who paid poor rates or rent of £10 per year in urban areas
Rural tenants paying rent of £12 or more
Large northern cities gained representation
The bill was silent on women
Mobilized a women's suffrage movement
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
On Liberty (1859)
The Subjection of Women (1869)
Women should be considered on the same plane as men
Women's freedom as a measure of social progress
1867 Reform Bill as the high point of British liberalism
Italian unification: Cavour and Garibaldi
Two visions of Italian statehood
Giuseppi Garibaldi (1807-1882)
Achieving national unification through a popular movement
A constitutional monarchy as favored by moderate nationalists
Economic and political reforms without democracy
Pinned their hopes on Charles Albert, king of Piedmont-Sardinia
Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1861)
Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810-1861)
Pursued pragmatic reforms guided by the state
Promoted economic expansion and a modern transportation infrastructure
Reformed the currency
Cavour and Italy
Relied on diplomacy
Cultivated an alliance with France in order to drive the Austrians from Italy
War with Austria (1859)
Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy
Joined by Tuscany, Parma, and Modena
The southern states
Francis II (1859-1860) faced a peasant revolt in the Two Sicilies
Garibaldi landed in Sicily (1860)
"The Thousand" gained widespread support for unification
Garibaldi took Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel
Garibaldi marched on Rome
Garibaldi and Cavour
Cavour worried that Garibaldi would bring French or Austrian intervention
Cavour preferred that unification take place quickly, without domestic turmoil
The king ordered Garibaldi to cede military authority
Final gains
Venetia remained in Austrian hands until 1866
Italian soldiers occupied Rome in September 1870
Rome became the capital of a united Italian kingdom in July 1871
Law of Papal Guarantees defined and limited the pope's status
"We have made Italy, now we must make Italians"
Widening gap between industrial north and rural south
The unification of Germany: Realpolitik
Realpolitik as the watchword of the 1850s and 1860s
Frederick William of Prussia
Granted a Prussian constitution
Established a bicameral parliament
Modified electoral system to reinforce hierarchies of wealth and power
Divided voters into three classes based on the amount of taxes they paid
A large landowner or industrialist had a hundred times the voting power of a common working man
Growth of the Prussian middle class
Active liberal intelligentsia
Liberal civil service
Liberalism and Frederick William IV (1840-1861)
King wanted to expand the standing army and take military matters out of parliamentary control
Opponents saw the king perhaps creating a personal army
William named Bismarck minister-president of Prussia (1862)
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
Prussian Junker and defender of the monarchy
Opposed liberalism and nationalism
Believed that some sort of union was inevitable and that Prussia ought to take the initiative
Bismarck and the opposition
Defied parliamentary opposition
Dissolved Parliament over the levy of taxes
Bismarck and foreign policy
Played the "nationalist card" to preempt his liberal opponents
Believed that the German Confederation was no longer useful
The dispute over Schleswig-Holstein
The Seven Weeks' War
Austria gave up Schleswig- Holstein and surrendered Venetia to the Italians
Austria agreed to dissolve the Confederation
Bismarck created the Northern German Confederation
Prussian victories weakened liberal opposition
The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
A conflict with France would aid German nationalism in Bavaria, Württemberg, and other southern states
Skillful propagandistplayed off public opinion
German states rallied to Prussia's side
No European powers came to the aid of France
The Prussian army
Napoléon III captured at Sedan
The German empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles on January 18, 1871
A "revolution from above"
The state and nationality: centrifugal forces in the Austrian empire
The Habsburgs abolished serfdom but made few other reforms
The Hungarians were essentially re-conquered
Administrative reforms
New and more uniform legal system
Rationalized taxation
Imposed a single-language policy favoring German
Ethnic relations
Grew more tense
The "nationalities" protested the powerlessness of their Diets, military repression, and cultural disenfranchisement
Francis Joseph (1848-1916, emperor of Austria)
Agreed to the new federal structure
The Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary)
Common system of taxation, common army, made foreign and military policy together
Internal and constitutional affairs were separated
Ausgleich (Settlement) allowed Hungarians their own constitution and capital (Buda and Pest)
No national unification in Habsburg lands
Nation and State Building in Russia, the United States, and Canada
Territory, the state, and serfdom: Russia
Abolition of serfdom as part of a project to rebuild Russia as a modern state
"Slavophiles"
Preserving Russia's distinctive features
Idealized traditional Russian culture
Rejected Western secularism, commercialism, and bourgeois culture
"Westernizers"
Russia should adopt European science, technology, and education
Liberalism and individual rights
The Emancipation Decree of 1861
Massive in scope, limited in change
Granted legal rights to 22 million serfs
Gave former serfs title to a portion of the land
Required the state to compensate landowners
Newly liberated serfs had to pay installments for their land
Law granted land to the peasant commune (mir), not individual serfs
Expansion
Russia pressed east and south
Invaded and conquered independent Islamic kingdoms along the Silk Road
Founded Siberian city of Vladivostok in 1860
In most cases, Russia did not assimilate the populations of new territories
Territory and the Nation: The United States
The Jeffersonian Revolution
Combined democratic aspirations with national expansion
Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)
The Bill of Rights
The separation of powers
An aristocracy of "virtue and talent"
Opposed national religion and special privilege
The independence of the yeoman farmer
Territorial expansionthe Louisiana Purchase (1803)
Added millions of acres of prime cotton land
Extended the empire of slavery
Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)
Transformed Jeffersonian liberalism
Campaigned to extend suffrage to all white males
All officeholders should be elected and not appointed
Frequent rotation of men in power
Manifest Destiny"to overspread the continent"
Brought Oregon and Washington into the Union
Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and California brought in during war with Mexico
Northern "free labor" ideology
Southern plantation slavery
The Politics of Slavery
The legality of slavery
Southern United States, Brazil, Cuba, most of Africa, parts of India and the Islamic world
Slavery and the Enlightenment
Slavery contradicted natural law and natural freedom
Slavery as metaphor for everything that was bad
England and the abolition of the slave trade
William Wilberforce and the immorality of the slave trade
Parliament passes a bill prohibiting English ships to participate in the slave trade (1807)
Why did attempts to abolish slavery occur?
Less profitable
Adam Smith and free trade
Religious revivalism
Appealed to women reformers
The working classes
Slave rebellions
1800-1822: rebellions in Virginia, Louisiana, and South Carolina
1816-1831: rebellions in Barbados and Jamaica
Increased the slaveholders' sense of vulnerability and isolation
1838-1848: abolition of slavery in Great Britain and France
Latin America
Nationalist leaders recruited slaves to fight the Spanish
Simón de Bolívar
Cuba
A Spanish colony, 40 percent slaves
The sugar industry
Abolition began in the 1870s
The American Civil War, 1861-1865
The crisis of American slavery
Would new states be "free" or "slave"?
Northern calls for "free labor"
Failure of elaborate compromises led to the Civil War in 1861
Consequences of the Civil War
The abolition of slavery
Established the preeminence of the national government over states' rights
The Fourteenth Amendment
Due process defined by the national not state government
The expansion of the U.S. economy
War laid the foundations for the modern American nation-state
The "Eastern Questions": The Decline of Ottoman Power and International Relations
The Eastern Question
Ottoman empire lost its grip on provinces in southeastern Europe
Strategic interest, systems of alliances, and the balance of power in Europe
The Crimean War
Russia invaded Ottoman territories of Moldavia and Walachia
Austria garrisoned its troops
Russia turned on the Turks
Provoked French and British fears of Russian expansion
A short but gruesome war
"The Charge of the Light Brigade"
Importance of the war
Peace settlement was a setback for Russia
Romania becomes an independent nation
Embarrassed French prestige
Innovations in warfare
Rifled muskets, underwater mines, and trench warfare
Railroads and telegraphs
Correspondents and photojournalistsa "public" war
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
Conclusion
1850-1870 as decades of intense nation building
Unifications of Italy and Germany
The rise of the United States
Nationalism as an erratic and malleable force