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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 20
From Restoration To Revolution, 1815-1848
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
After WaterlooEurope without revolution?
Citizens and new political ideologies
Industrial change and social change
Romanticism
Back to the Future: Restoring Order, 1815-1830
The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration
Central cast
Russia: Alexander I (1777-1825, r. 1801-1825)
Enlightened monarch and absolutist monarch
Succeeded his murdered father in 1801
Presented himself as the "liberator" of Europe
Europe feared an all-powerful Russia as it had feared an all-powerful France
France: Prince Charles Maurice de Tallyrand (1754-1859)
Bishop and revolutionary
Escaped the Terror by exiling himself to the United States
Served under Napoléon, then turned against him
Foreign minister to Louis XVIII
Austria: Klemens von Metternich (1773-1838)
The "architect of the peace"
Lifelong hatred of political change
Feared Alexander might provoke another revolution
His peace prevented a major European war until 1914
Goals of the Congress
The restoration of order and legitimate authority
Recognized Louis XVIII as legitimate sovereign of France
Restored Bourbon leaders in Spain and the two Sicilies
The prevention of French expansion
Germany and Poland
The Confederation of the Rhine
Independent kingdoms of Bavaria, Württemburg, and Saxony
A nominally independent kingdom of Poland
British compensations
Received French territories in South Africa and South America
The Concert of Europe
Securing the peace and creating permanent stability
Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia form the Quadruple Alliance
In 1818, joined by France (the Quintuple Alliance)
Cooperation in the suppression of all disturbances to the peace
Alexander and the Holy Alliance
Established a ruler's legitimacy based on international treaties and not divine right
Revolt against Restoration
Secret organization: the Carbonari
Vowed to oppose the government in Vienna
Spread through southern Europe and France in the 1820s
Aims
Some called for a constitution
Others sang the praises of Bonaparte
Naples and the Piedmont
Opposition turned to revolt
Restored monarchs abandoned their promises
Metternich summoned Austrian, Prussian, and Russian representatives
The Troppau memorandum (1820)
Declared they would aid each other in suppressing revolution
France and Britain declined to sign
Revolution in Latin America
The unsteady foundations of colonial rule
Argentina declared independence in 1816
The liberation of Chile and Peru
Simon de Bolívar (1783-1830)
Led uprisings from Venezuela across to Bolivia
Political revolts unleashed conflict and civil war
Some elites sought liberation from Spain
Radicals wanted land reforms and an end to slavery
The repression of radical movements
Metternich and the conservative responseno revolutions in Latin America
The United States
The Monroe Doctrine (1823)
Warned Europe that intervention in the New World was an unfriendly act
Britain
Recognized South American republics
New trading partner
Brazil declared independence in 1822
Russia: the Decembrists
Death of Tsar Alexander I (1825)
The Decembrists
Most came from noble families or were members of elite regiments
Saw Russia as the liberator of Europe
Russia needed reform
Serfdom contradicted the promise of liberation
Curbing the tsar's power
No political program
Ranged from constitutional monarchs to Jacobin republicans
Wanted Constantine to assume the throne and guarantee a constitution
Nicholas I (1796-1855, r. 1825-1855)
Crushed the Decembrist revolt
The Third Section (secret police force)
The culture of fear and suspicion
Signs of change
The bureaucracy became more centralized and efficient
Less dependence on the nobility for political support
The codification of the legal system (1832)
Landowners reorganized their estates
Southeastern Europe: Balkans (Greece and Serbia)
Local movements in Greece and Serbia began to demand autonomy
Greek war for independence (1821-1827)
European sympathy and European identity
Christians cast the rebellion as a war between Christianity and Islam
A crusade for liberty
A crusade to preserve the classical heritage (Philhellenism)
Delacroix, Massacre at Chios (1824)
Celebrating Greeks and demonizing Turks
British, French, and Russian troops went in against the Turks in 1827
Serbia
Europe sided with the Serbs against the Ottomans
Serbian semi-independence
An Orthodox Christian principality under Ottoman rule
Results
European opportunism
Greece and Serbia did not break close ties with the Ottomans
Taking Sides: New Ideologies in Politics
Principles of conservatism
The concept of legitimacy as a general antirevolutionary policy
The monarchy was a guarantee of political stability
The nobility as the rightful leaders of the nation
Change must be slow, incremental, and managed
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
Opposed all talk of natural rights (too abstract)
The dangers of human reason
Deference to experience, tradition, and history
Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) and Louis- Gabriel-Ambroise Bonald (1754-1840)
Defended absolute monarchy
The Catholic Church
The monarchy, aristocracy, and Church as mainstays of the social and political order
The revival of religion
Expressed a popular reaction against revolution
Emphasis on order, discipline, and tradition
Liberalism
The commitment to individual liberties and rights
Most important function of government was to protect these rights
Justice, knowledge, and progress
Components
Equality before the law
Government rests on the consent of the governed
Laissez-faire economic principles
The roots of liberalism
John Locke
American and French Revolutions
Inalienable rights
Freedom from arbitrary authority, imprisonment, and censorship
Freedom of the press
The right to assemble
Written constitutions
Advocated direct representation in government (for property-owners)
Economic liberalism
Adam Smith (1723-1790), Wealth of Nations (1776)
Attacked mercantilism in the name of free markets
The economy should be based on a "system of natural liberty"
Political economy
Identified basic economic laws (supply and demand, balance of trade)
David Ricardo (1772-1823)
Laws of wages and rents
Economic activity ought to be unconstrained
Labor contracted freely
Property unencumbered by feudal restrictions
Goods to circulate freely
An end to government-granted monopolies
The government should preserve order and protect property
Liberty and freedom
In lands occupied by foreign powers, liberty meant freedom from foreign rule
Central and southeastern Europe
The elimination of feudal privilege
More rights for local parliaments
Great Britain
Expanding the franchise
Laissez-faire economics and free trade
Creating a limited and efficient government
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
Human interests are not naturally harmonious
Utilitarianism"the greatest happiness of the greatest number"
Radicalism, republicanism, and early socialism
Republicans
Demanded constitutions and governments by the people
An expanded franchise and democratic participation in politics
Socialism
Raising the "social question" as an urgent political matter
Socialism as a response to rapid industrialization
The intensification of labor, miseries of the working classes, and social class
Competition, individualism, and private property
Robert Owen (1771-1858)
Built a model workshop at New Lanark (Scotland)
The principles of cooperation, not profitability
Organized good housing, sanitation, free schooling, social security
Charles Fourier (1772-1837)
The abolition of the wage system
The division of labor based on natural inclinations
Complete equality of the sexes
Louis Blanc (1811-1882)
Campaigned for universal male suffrage
Giving working men control of the state
"Associations of producers"
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865)
What is property?"Property is theft"
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and socialism
Influenced by Hegel's philosophy
Studied philosophy but became a journalist
The Rheinische Zeitung (1842-1843)
Marx exiled to Paris, then Brussels, then London
Partnership with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
Experience in the Manchester textile factories
The Condition of the Working Classes in England (1844)
In 1847, Marx and Engels joined the League of the Just (later renamed the Communist League)
The Communist Manifesto (1848)
History and conflict
Master and slave
Lord and serf
Bourgeois and proletariat
Capitalism would "dig its own grave"
With the collapse of capitalism, the workers would seize the state
Communism
Dialectical materialism
Citizenship and community: nationalism
Nation, from the Latin nasci (to be born)
The French Revolution defined "nation" to mean the people, or the sovereign people
Celebrating a new political community, not a territory or ethnicity
Nationalism in the early nineteenth century
Nation symbolized legal equality, constitutional government, and an end to feudal privilege
Nationalism as a threat to the local power of aristocratic elites
Nationalism and the liberals
Associated with political transformations
The awakening of the common people
But nationalism could undermine liberalism as well
Nationalism might require the sacrifice of some freedoms
National identity developed and changed historically
Nationalism and the state
Developing national feelings
Linking citizens to the state
Educational systems taught a national language
"Inventing" a national heritage
Cultural Revolt: Romanticism
General observations
A diverse intellectual and cultural movement
A reaction against the Classicism of the eighteenth century
Instead of reason and discipline, Romanticism embraced emotion, freedom, and imagination
The individual, individuality, and the subjective experience
Intuition, emotion, and feelings as the guides to truth
British Romantic poetry
William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)
Lyrical Ballads
Compassion and feeling bind all men together
Nature as humanity's most trusted teacher
William Blake (1757-1827)
Individual imagination and the poetic vision
Fierce critic of industrial society
The imagination could awaken human sensibilities
George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824)
Poetry was the "lava of imagination"
An aristocrat who rebelled against conformity and inhibition
His Romanticism was inseparable from his liberal politics
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
Prometheus Unbound (1820)
Defined romantic heroism and the cult of individual audacity
Women writers, gender, and Romanticism
Mary Godwin Shelley (1797-1851)
Daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft
Fascination with contemporary scientific developments
Frankenstein, or, the Modern Prometheus (1818)
A twisted creation myth
Individual genius gone wrong
George Sand (1804-1876)
Defying convention
Rebellion against middle-class moral values
Madame de Staël (1766-1817)
Popularized German Romanticism in France
De l'Allemagne (Germany, 1810)
Suggested that men could be emotional and that men and women shared a common human nature
Romantic painting
Britain
John Constable (1776-1837)
"It is the soul that sees"
Emphasized the artist's individual technique
W. Turner (1775-1851)
Intensely subjective, personal, and imaginative
Experimented with brush strokes and color
France
Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863)
New ways of visualizing the world
Pointed to early-twentieth-century modernism
Romantic politics: liberty, history, and nation
Victor Hugo (1802-1885)
Dealt sympathetically with the experience of the common people
Nôtre Dame de Paris (1831) and Les Misérables (1862)
François de Chateaubriand (1768-1848)
The Genius of Christianity (1802)
Religious experiences of the national past are woven into the present
Accent on religious emotion, feeling, and subjectivity
The Romantic uniqueness of cultures
Johann von Herder (1744-1803)
Ideas for a Philosophy of Human History (1784-1791)
Civilization arises out of the Volk (common people), not elites
The Volkgeistspirit or genius of the people
Brothers Grimm
Grimm's Fairy Tales (1812-1815)
Collected German folktales
Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805) and Wilhelm Tell (1804)
A rallying cry for German national consciousness
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)
Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855), Pan Tadeusz (1834)
Orientalism
Napoléon's invasion of Egypt (1798)
Brought back the Rosetta stone
Establishment of the Egyptian Institute
The Description of Egypt (23 volumes, 1809-1823)
Defined Europe by looking at the Orient
A fascination with ethnography and new regions
Looking for the roots of Christianity
Fascination with medieval history and religion (especially the Crusades)
The "Oriental renaissance"
Goethe and Beethoven
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)
The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774)
Yearnings and restless love
Backed away from the excesses of Romanticism
Faust (1790)
Faust sells his soul to the devil in return for eternal youth and universal knowledge
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
A Classicist and Romantic
Glorification of nature and individuality
The poetry of instrumental music
Raised music as an art form at the center of the Romantic movement
Goethe and Beethoven as transitional figures
Reform and Revolution
The 1830 Revolution in France
Louis XVIII succeeded by Charles X (1757-1836, r. 1824-1830)
Determined to reverse the legacies of the Revolution and Napoléon
Appeased the ultraroyalists by compensating nobility whose land had been confiscated during the Revolution
Restored the Catholic Church to its traditional place
Provoked widespread discontent
Charles called new elections, then tried to overthrow the parliamentary regime
The July Ordinances (1830)
Dissolved the newly elected chamber before it had even met
Imposed strict censorship of the press
Further restricted suffrage to exclude all non-nobles
Called for new elections
Revolution
Paris took to the streets for three days of battles
The abdication of Charles
Louis Philippe (1773-1850, r. 1830-1848)
Promoted as a constitutional monarch
The July Monarchy
Doubled the number of eligible voters
Voting remained a privilege
Major winnersthe propertied classes
Belgium and Poland in 1830
Congress of Vienna joined Belgium to Holland
Never popular in Belgium
News of the July Revolution catalyzed Belgian opposition
Brussels rebelled, and the great powers guaranteed Belgian neutrality (in force until 1914)
Poland
Not an independent stateunder Russian governance
Had its own parliament, a constitution, and guarantees of basic liberties
Ignored by Russian-imposed head of state, Constantine
Moved toward revolt in 1830
Drove Constantine out
By 1831, Russian forces retook Warsaw
Poland placed under Russian military rule
Reform in Great Britain
The end of the Napoleonic Wars
Agricultural depression, low wages, unemployment, and bad harvests
Social unrest
Peterloo (1819)
Parliament passed the Six Acts (1819)
Outlawed "seditious and blasphemous" literature
Increased stamp tax
Restricted the right of public meeting
Tory reforms
Some toleration for Catholics and Dissenters
Refused to reform political representation in the House of Commons
Liberal reforms
Whigs, industrial middle classes, and radical artisans demand reform
The desire to enfranchise responsible citizens
Reform Bill of 1832
Eliminated "rotten" boroughs
Reallocated 143 parliamentary seats from the rural south to the industrial north
Expanded the franchise
The political strength of landed aristocratic interests remained
The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)
Corn Laws protected British landlords from foreign competition
Kept the price of bread artificially high
The Anti-Corn Law League
Held large meetings throughout northern England
Lobbied members in Parliament
Persuaded Prime Minister Peel to repeal the Corn Laws
British radicalism and the Chartist Movement
The six points of the "People's Charter"
Universal white male suffrage
The secret ballot
Abolition of property qualification for membership in the Commons
Annual parliamentary elections
Payment of salaries to members of the Commons
Equal electoral districts
With deteriorating economic conditions, Chartism spread in the 1840s
Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals
William Lovett
Self-improvement
Education of artisans was the answer
Feargus O'Connor
Appealed to the impoverished and desperate class of workers
Attacked industrialization
Bronterre O'Brien
Openly admired Robespierre
Opposition to the Chartists
Chartists presented petitions to Parliament in 1839 and 1842both rejected
April 1848: Chartists planned a major demonstration and show of force in London
Twenty-five thousand workers marched to Parliament with a petition of 6 million signatures demanding the six points
The failure of Chartism
The Hungry Forties and the Revolutions of 1848
The poor harvests of the early 1840s
Food prices doubled
Bread riots
Cyclical industrial slowdowns and unemployment
The French Revolution of 1848
July Monarchy under Charles X seemed little different from that of Louis XVIII
Political crises
Republican disillusionment
Republican societies proliferate
Rebellions in Lyons and Paris
The banquet of February 22, 1848
The French government banned the meeting
The revolution began
Louis Philippe abdicates
Provisional government
A combination of liberals, republicans, and socialists
A new constitution based on universal male suffrage
Tensions between middle-class republicans and socialists
The National Workshops
A program of public works in and around Paris
Planned to support twelve thousand workers
Unemployment reached 65 percent
Workers streamed in to join the Workshop
Sixty-six thousand (April), one hundred twenty thousand (June)
Popular politics
Provisional government lifted restrictions on freedom of speech and political activity
Women's clubs and newspapers appeared
The end of the National Workshops
French assembly decided the Workshops were a financial drain
Mayclosed the Workshops to future enrollment
June 21the government ended the program
The June Days (June 23-26): Parisian workers barricade the streets
Repression
three thousand killed, twelve thousand arrested
The government of Louis Napoléon Bonaparte (1808-1873)
Spent most of his life in exile
Used his position to consolidate his power
Permitted Catholics to regain control of the schools
Banned meetings, workers' associations
Asked the people to grant him the power to draw up a new constitution (1851)
The Second Empire of Napoléon III (1852-1870)
Significance of the 1848 Revolution in France
Its dynamics would be repeated elsewhere
The pivotal role of the middle classes
Many saw the June Days as naked class struggle
Shattered many liberal aspirations
Middle-class and working-class politics were more sharply differentiated
Conclusion
The partial success of the Congress of Vienna
The Revolution of 1848 as the opening act of a larger drama