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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 9
The Consolidation Of Europe, 1100-1300
Chapter Study Outline
The Making of Medieval Monarchies
The Norman conquest of England
1066-feudalism first appears in England
William the Conqueror (1027-1087)
Rewarded his Norman followers with grants of English land
Exercised a variety of public rights not derived from feudalism
All landowners owed loyalty to the king-a centralized feudalism
Represented a fusion of Carolingian public power with new feudal structures of power and landholding
Feudal monarchy in England
The rise of administrative kingship
Henry I (1068-1135)
Created the clerks of the Exchequer
Strengthened local administration
Traveling circuit judges
The reign of Henry II (1133-1189)
Already the ruler of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Aquitaine
Orders juries of local men to report under oath every violation of the laws
Origin of the grand jury
System of "writs"
Tried to reform operation of Church courts
Thomas Becket
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Constitutions of Clarendon (1164)
Clerics convicted of serious crimes to be handed over to royal court for sentencing
Becket objected
Fled to France
Murdered upon his return to England
Henry forced to surrender several of his claims (e.g., the right to sentence criminal clerics)
Richard the Lionhearted (1157-1199)
The reign of King John and the Magna Carta
Less capable military leader
Lost nearly all Angevin lands
Devoted his reign to raising money to regain French lands
Pressed feudal rights to their limit
Fined the nobility
Heavy taxation on the county
Failed military expedition to France (1214)
The magnates rebel
Magna Carta (1215)
The king must respect the traditional rights of his vassals
Taxation could not be raised by the crown without the consent of the barons
Parliament
Emerged gradually after 1300
A consultative body
A political as well as financial and judicial body
Feudal monarchy in France
Slow government centralization-faced greater problems
Carolingian institutions had collapsed
The Capetian dynasty (987-1328)
The reinvention of the French kingdom
The growth of royal power in France
Louis VI, "the Fat" (1078-1137)
Consolidated royal control over the Île-de-France by subduing "robber barons"
Agriculture, trade, and intellectual life could flourish at Paris
Louis VII (1137-1181)
Philip Augustus (1165-1223)
Undermined John's control over French territories
John refused to submit to pressure
A war of conquest
Philip retained Angevin territories
An effective system of local administration
Superimposed new royal officials (baillis) over local government practice
The baillis had full judicial, administrative, and military authority
Louis IX, "Saint Louis" (1226-1270)
Extended administrative pattern further
The epitome of thirteenth-century kingship
Germany
Frederick I, Barbarossa (1152-1190)
Family of Staufen or Hohenstaufen ("high Staufen")
Called his realm the Holy Roman Empire
A universal empire blessed by God
Tried to rule in cooperation with German princes
Compromised with Lombard League and the papacy
Imperial court at Mainz
Died during the Third Crusade
Succeeded by his son, Henry VI
Frederick II (1216-1250)
Spoke Arabic, Latin, German, French, and Italian
Patron of learning
Supported territorial princes of Germany
Enforced imperial rights in Italy
With his death, German rule fell to several hundred German princes
Iberia
Highly regionalized
Successful reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims
Four major Christian kingdoms: Navarre, Portugal, the combined kingdom of Aragon and Catalunya, and Castile
The Dominion of the Church
Development of church or canon law
Gratian (fl. twelfth century)
The Decretum or The Concord of Discordant Canons
Claimed ecclesiastical jurisdiction over marriage, inheritance, and bequests
Cases in canon law courts increased
The importance of legal expertise
The reign of Innocent III (1198-1216)
Elected pope at thirty-seven
Studied theology and canon law
Goal was to unify Christendom under papal hegemony
Never questioned the right of the king to rule in the secular sphere
Would discipline kings whenever they sinned
Founded the Papal States
Engineered the triumph of Frederick II
Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
Defined central dogmas of the Christian faith
Acknowledged papal supremacy
Established free primary schools in all major cities
Required non-Christians to wear distinctive clothing
Popes of the thirteenth century
Popes after Innocent began to appear more like ordinary, acquisitive rulers
Conflicts with Frederick
Popes enhanced power of Church government
Asserted the right to name candidates for ecclesiastical positions
Controlled curriculum at the University of Paris
Political misuse of the institution of the Crusades (against Frederick)
Loss of spiritual prestige
Decline of the papal monarchy
Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
The growth of national monarchies
Disputes with English and French kings
Clerical taxation
Papacy moves from Rome to Avignon (1316-1377)
Balance of power shifted toward the state and away from the Church
Pious Christians looked to the state for campaigns of moral and spiritual improvement
Spiritual Awakenings and Challenges
European religious revival
Cistercians and Carthusians
Founding of new orders
Cistercians
Followed the Benedictine Rule in a most austere manner
Founded new monasteries away from civilization
Shunned unnecessary church decoration
Abandoned Cluniac stress on an elaborate liturgy
Contemplation, prayer, manual labor
Changing nature of religious belief and devotion
Shift away from the cult of saints
Emphasis on worship of Jesus and veneration of the Virgin Mary
Veneration of relics replaced by concentration on the Eucharist
Transubstantiation
The host elevated for all to see
The identification with Christ
The cult of the Virgin Mary
Patron saint of the Cistercians
Notre Dame ("Our Lady") cathedrals- Paris, Chartres, Rheims, and elsewhere
Mary as intercessor with Jesus for human salvation
Set a woman in an honored place in the Christian religion
Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179)
Religious visions, inspired by God
Wrote Latin prose
Composed religious songs
The challenge of popular heresy
Difficult to control lay enthusiasm
Had the Church lost its idealistic goals?
The "miraculous" powers of the priest
The Cathars (Albigensians)
Strongest in northern Italy and southern France
Believed all matter was evil
Holiness required extreme asceticism
Dualistic religion
Role of noblewomen in the spread of Catharism
The Waldensians
Originated by Peter Waldo at Lyons
Imitated the life of Christ and the apostles
Translated and studied the Gospels
Dedicated themselves to poverty and preaching
An alternative church?
Innocent's reaction
Crushing disobedience
Supporting idealistic religious groups
A crusade against the Albigensians
The Inquisition (torture first used in 1252)
Franciscans and Dominicans
Imitated the life of Jesus while wandering the European countryside in small groups
The Dominicans
Founded by Saint Dominic (1170-1221)
Approved by Innocent (1216)
Dedicated to fighting heresy
The conversion of Jews and Muslims
Preaching and public debate- intellectually oriented
Heretics best controlled by legal procedure
The Franciscans
Founded by Saint Francis of Assisi (1181-1226)
Gave away all his property
Committed to an "emotional" religion
Imitated the life of Christ
Indifference toward doctrine, form, or ceremony
Revered the Eucharist
Granted approval by Innocent (1209)
Spread of the movement
Specialized in revivalist outdoor preaching
Consequences
Combated heresy
Helped preach papal crusades
Active missionary work
Power by example
Not completely successful in converting the heretic
Jews and Christians
Church did little to condemn or contain anti-Semitism
Popular anti-Semitic myths
Jews were the agents of Satan
Jews killed Christian children
Thirteenth-century kings begin expelling Jews from their kingdoms
The Medieval Intellectual Revival
The growth of schools
Antecedents-Charlemagne reorganized cathedral and monastic schools
Twelfth-century monasteries abandon practice of educating outsiders
Cathedral schools-main centers of European education
Broadening of the curriculum (twelfth century)
Growing demand for trained officials
Knowledge of Latin grammar required
Classical Roman authors
Philosophy
New schools
Education for those not intended to join the clergy
Children of the upper classes
Future notaries, merchants, or estate officials
Schools became independent of ecclesiastical control
Nonreligious lines of inquiry
Scholasticism
A new worldview-highly systematic and respectful of authority
The theory and practice of reconciling classical philosophy with Christian faith
Peter Abelard (1079-1143)
Taught at Paris
The first intellectual?
Adept at logic
The seduction of Heloise (1118)
The Story of My Calamities
Sic et Non (Yes and No)
Gathered 150 statements from the church fathers
Using careful study to arrive at truth
Abelard's method-Socratic questioning
Treated theology as a science, applying to it the laws of logic
The harmony of reason and faith
Peter Lombard (c. 1100-1164)
Book of Sentences
Raised theological questions in consequential order
Answered from both sides of the question
The rise of universities
Originally offered instruction beyond the cathedral school-advanced liberal arts
Advanced liberal arts, law, medicine, and theology
First university at Bologna-known for legal studies
University of Paris -known for theological and philosophical studies
Peter Abelard (1079-1142)
Attracted students from across Europe
"University" originally meant a corporation or guild of students or teachers
University gradually came to mean an educational institution with a school of liberal arts
Thirteenth-century schools: Oxford, Cambridge, Montpellier, Salamanca, and Naples
Universities as student corporations
Bologna
Students hired and paid teachers
Universities as teacher corporations
Paris
Arts, theology, law, and medicine
Modern degree system-B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
Emphasis on abstract analysis and disputation
Student life
Town and gown
Study was intense
The value of authority
Rote memorization
Public disputation
The recovery of classical learning
Greek and Arabic works given Latin translations
Burst of translating activity centered in Spain and Italy
Rediscovery of Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy
The scholastic method
Aristotle as "the Philosopher"
The writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Leading theologian at Paris
Early Dominican education
Faith could be defended by reason
Nature complements grace
Harmonized Greek philosophy with Christian theology
Summa Contra Gentiles and Summa Theologica
There are mysteries of faith that cannot be explained by reason
The pinnacle of Western medieval thought
The receptivity to new ideas
The authority of a text was not the sole judge in arguments
Exalting the dignity of human nature as a divine creation
Courts, Cities, and Cathedrals
Chivalry and courtly love
Knightly code of values
A social ideology of values and identification
Knighthood and nobility
An amalgamation of values and goals
Thirteenth-century chivalry-an ideology of a social class
Dividing those who were of the nobility and those who were not
The rules of battle
Cult of courtly love
Women as objects of male veneration
Courtly love as refined love
Noble women were courted, peasant women could be taken by force
The literature of courtly love
The changing role of noble women
Urban opportunities and challenges
Towns and cultural and economic centers
Places for ambitious men
Urban governance likely to be run by oligarchs
Opportunities for individuals; emergence of guilds
Attempt to preserve monopolies and limit competition
In addition to economic benefits, important social, political, and cultural institutions
Looked after their members
The blossoming of literature, art, and music
The Goliards
Wandering scholars
Parodied the liturgy
Rejection of Christian asceticism
Vernacular literature
Song of Roland (French)
Song of the Nibelungs (German)
Poem of the Cid (Spanish)
Troubadours' poetry and courtly romances
Sophisticated style
Theme of courtly love
Romances
Long, narrative poems
Written in the vernacular, Romance languages
Chrétien de Troyes-wrote Arthurian romances
Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival
Gottfried von Strassburg, Tristan
The fabliaux or verse fables
Derived from Aesop
Significant reflection of growing worldliness
The Divine Comedy
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)
Native of Florence
Mastered religious, philosophical, and literary knowledge of his time
Familiar with the Bible, the church fathers, Virgil, Cicero, and Boethius
Expelled from Florence (1301)
The Divine Comedy
Narrative in Italian rhyming verse
Poet's journey through hell, purgatory, and heaven
Virgil as the poet's guide
Beatrice
Stressed the priority of salvation
Humans have free will
Art and architecture
The Romanesque
Origins in tenth century
Manifesting the majesty of God in stone
Subordinated all architectural details to a uniform system
Stability and permanence
The Gothic
Appeared in twelfth and thirteenth centuries
Intricate building style
Pointed arches, groined and ribbed vaults, flying buttresses
Lighter and loftier construction
Exterior ornamentation
Stained-glass windows
An encyclopedia of medieval knowledge carved in stone