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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 29
A World Without Walls: Globalization And The West
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
An age of globalization
Definitions and characteristics
The Internet as stunning transformation of global communications and knowledge
A "cult" concept
New possibilities and new vulnerabilities
Integration
New political, social, economic, and cultural global networks
New technologies, new economic imperatives, changing laws
Information crosses national boundaries
Global exchange can be independent of national control
Economics
Asian nations emerged as industrial giants
Reorganization of economic enterprises from banking and commerce to manufacturing
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
The International Criminal Court
New forms of politics
The effects of globalization
Did not necessarily produce peace, equality, or homogeneity
No uniform, leveling process
Worldwide inequality has increased
Obstacles and resistance
New kinds of cultural blending, new forms of sociability
The new stage of globalization
Liquid Modernity? The Flow of Money, Ideas, and Peoples
Money
A transformation of the world's economy
Rapid integration of markets since the 1970s
Overturning economic agreements made since World War II
Crucial shift in monetary policy (1971)
United States abandoned the postwar gold standard
Allowed the dollar to range freely
Regulations on currencies, international banking, and lending faded away
Creation of the IMF and the World Bank
Neoliberalism
Stressed the value of free markets and profit incentives
Sharp restraints on budget deficits and social welfare programs
A network of local, national, and regional economies
Export trade flourished
Technological advances and high technology
More industrial jobs in the postcolonial world
Asia, India, Latin America, and elsewhere
Exchange and use of goods became more complex
Led to a broader interchange of cultures
Deep political effects
Ideas
Widespread flow of information
New commercial and cultural importance of information itself
Proliferation of devices to create, store, and share information
The personal computer
Instant communication
New cultural and political settings
The "global village"
The Internet
Entrepreneurs with utopian ambitions
Publishing all kinds of information quickly and easily
Grass-roots activism
Political struggles
Satellite televisionrevolts in Eastern Europe in 1989
Fax machinesChinese demonstrators at Tiananmen Square
Entertainment
Producing entertainment as well as the technology to enjoy entertainment
Bill Gates and Microsoft
Corporate headquarters remained in the West
Peoples
Free flow of labor as central aspect of globalization
After 1945, a widespread migration of peoples
Changes in everyday life
Europe, Arabic states, and the United States
Multiculturalism
New blends of music, food, language, and other forms of popular culture
Raised tense questions of citizenship
Effects
Xenophobic backlash and bigotry
New conceptions of civil rights and cultural belonging
Successful and disadvantaged players
Production of illegal drugs
A thriving industry in Colombia, Myanmar, and Malaysia
Organized crime
Grew out of violence and economic breakdown of postcolonial states
Demographics and global health
Population
1800-1950: population tripled to 3 billion people
1960-2000: population doubled to 6 billion people
Causes for growth
Improvements in basic standards of health
Improving urban-industrial environment in postcolonial regions
Strained social services, public health facilities, and urban infrastructures
Demographic crisis
Longer life spans, welfare programs, rising healthcare costs, easily obtainable divorces
Population decline: Italy, Scandinavia, and Russia
Public health and medicine
New threats and new treatments
Exposure to epidemic diseases a new reality of globalization
Increased cultural interaction
Exposure of new ecosystems to human development
Speed of intercontinental transportation
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) first appeared at the end of the 1970s
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) appeared in 2003
Medical research
Discovery of DNA (1953)
Mapping the human genome
Genetic engineering
Dolly (1997)
New questions
Legal and moral issues of cloning
Who governs genetic advances?
Saving lives and cultural preferences
Ethics, citizenship, and humanity
After Empire: Postcolonial Politics in the Global Age
Postcolonial relationships
Former colonies gained independence and new kinds of cultural and political authority
"Postcolonial"underlines the fact that colonialism's legacies outlasted independence
Varied results
Industrial success and democratization
Ethnic slaughter and new forms of absolutism
Emancipation and ethnic conflict in Africa
Most colonies obtained independence while their infrastructure was deteriorating
Cold War brought few improvements
Homegrown and externally imposed corruption, poverty, and civil war
South Africa
The politics of apartheid sponsored by the white minority government
Nelson Mandela led the African National Congress (ANC)
Imprisoned since 1962
Intense repression and violent conflict
Mandela was released from prison in 1990
Resumed leadership of the ANC
Turned toward renewed public demonstrations and negotiation
W. de Klerk succeeded Pieter Botha
De Klerk and Mandela began direct talks to establish majority rule in March 1992
Mandela chosen as country's first black president in May 1994
Defused the climate of organized racial violence
Popular among blacks and whites
A living symbol of a new political culture
Rwanda
Conflict between Hutu and Tutsi populations
Highly organized campaign of genocide directed at the Tutsi
Eight hundred thousand dead in a matter of weeks
International pressure
Forced those who had participated in the genocide to flee to Zaire
Became hired mercenaries in a many-sided civil war
Public services, normal trade, and basic health collapsed in Zaire
Economic power on the Pacific rim
East Asia as a center of industrial and manufacturing production
China
World's leading heavy-industrial producer by 2000
State-owned companies produced cheaply and in bulk for sale in the United States and Europe
Established commercial zones around Shanghai
Hong Kong reclaimed from Britain in 1997
Intended to encourage massive foreign investment
The "Tigers"
Japan led the wayan "economic miracle"
Most influential model of success
Firms concentrated on efficiency and technical reliability of their products
State subsidies supported the success of Japanese firms
Well-funded programs of technical education
Collective loyalty among civil servants and managers
South Korea and Taiwan
Treated prosperity as a fundamental patriotic duty
Malaysia and Indonesia
Parlayed natural resources and expansive local labor pools into industrial investment
Boom and bust
1990s showed enormous slowdown in growth and near collapse of several currencies
Japan: rising production costs, overvalued stocks, rampant speculation in real estate markets
Launched monetary austerity programs
Indonesia
Inflation and unemployment
Reignited sharp ethnic conflicts
A New Center of Gravity: Israel, Oil, and Political Islam in the Middle East
The Middle East as crossroad
Western military, political, and economic interests
Deep-seated regional conflicts and transnational Islamic politics
The Arab-Israeli conflict
National aspirations of Jewish immigrants clash with anticolonial nationalist pan-Arabists
American-mediated peace efforts in the late 1970s, Soviet leaders remained neutral but supportive
Anwar Sadat (1918-1981) argued coexistence with rather than destruction of Israel
Sadat and Carter broker a peace with Israel's Menachem Begin (1913-1992)
Israel and Palestinian Arabs
A blend of ethnic and religious nationalism on both sides
Younger Palestinians turned to the PLO and radical Islam
Intifada ("throwing off" or uprising)
Fights escalated into cycles of Palestinian terrorism
International peace brokering
Yasser Arafat
Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin (1922-1995)
The second intifada
Oil, power, and economics
Postwar demand for oil skyrocketed
Automobiles and plastics
Needs, desires, and profits
Drew Western corporations and governments to the oil-rich states of the Middle East
Vast oil reserves discovered in the 1930s and 1940s
Oil a fundamental tool in new struggles over political power
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Founded in 1960
Arab, African, and Latin American nations
Regulating production and pricing of crude oil
Militant politics of some OPEC leaders wanted to use oil as a weapon against the West
1973 oil embargo
The West looks East
Treated Middle Eastern oil regions as vital strategic center of gravity
Constant great-power diplomacy
The West always ready to intervene
1991 Gulf War
Growing energy demands of postcolonial nations
China and India
Violent conflict inside Middle Eastern oil-producing states
Haves and have-nots
Deep resentments
Continued official corruption
New wave of radical politics
The Rise of Political Islam
North Africa and the Middle East
Shared characteristics of "kleptocracies"
Corrupt state agencies
Cronyism based on ethnic or family kinship
Decaying public services
Rapid population increase
State repression of dissent
Criticism of Nasser's Egypt
Powerful new political movement in revolt against foreign influence and corruption
Denounced Egypt's government as greedy, brutal, and corrupt
The roots of the Arab world's moral failure: centuries of colonial contact with the West
Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966)
Arrested several times by Egyptian authorities, ultimately executed
Ruling Arab elites were at fault
Frayed local and family bonds
Abandoned government's responsibility for charity and stability
The nation's elites were morally bankrupt
Arab elites lived in the pockets of Western imperial and corporate powers
Caused cultural impurity
Eroded authentic Muslim faith
Poisoning from without and within
Arab societies should reject all Western political and cultural ideas
Building a new world on conservative Islamic government
Radical Islam
Combined popular anger, opposition to Western forces, and an idealized vision of the past
The Muslim Brotherhood
Put Qutb's policies into practice
Secretive society rooted in anticolonial politics, charity, and fundamentalist Islam
More liberal Islamists were fragmented and easier to silence
Iran's Islamic revolution
An example of modernization gone sour
Shah Reza Pahlaviinstalled by Britain and the United States in 1953
Received oil contracts, weapons, and development aid
Thousands of Westerners introduced foreign influences
Challenged traditional local values
New economic and political alternatives
The shah kept these alternatives out of reach
Denied democratic representation to middle-class Iranian workers and students
Governed through a small aristocracy divided by religious infighting
Secret police and campaign of repression
Supported by Richard Nixon as a strategic ally
Retired from public life in 1979 and his provisional government collapsed
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
Returned from exile in France
Supported by nation's unemployed, deeply religious university students
Joined by radical Islamists
The new regime
Limited economic and political populism
Strict constructions of Islamic law
Restrictions on women's public life
Prohibition of ideas linked to Western influence
Attacked Sunni religious establishment and atheistic Soviet communists
Attacked Israel and the United States
Teheran and the hostage crisis
Iran, Iraq, and unintended consequences of the Cold War
Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)
Iraq attacked Iran over control of oil fields
Chemical weapons
Iran defeatedleft Iranian clerics more entrenched at home
Used oil reserves to back grass-roots radicals in Lebanon
Engaged in anti-Western terrorism
Threats to Iranian regime came from within
New generations of young students and disenfranchised service workers
Iraq as the new problem for the West
France, Saudi Arabia, the Soviet Union, and the United States supported Iraq in 1980
Coalition patronage supported the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein
Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990
Coalition forces conducted a six-week air campaign and then a ground war
Iraq forced out of Kuwait
Results of the Gulf War
Encouraged closeness between coalition forces
Encouraged anti-American radicals angry at a new Western presence
Afghanistan
Socialist government of Afghanistan turned against its Soviet patrons in 1979
Moscow overthrew the Afghan president and installed a pro-Soviet faction
Soviets at war with militant Islamists (mujahidin)
Conflict became a holy war
Mujahidin assisted by advanced weapons and training given by Western powers
Soviets withdrew in 1989
Hard-line Islamic factions took over the country
Violence beyond Bounds: War and Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century
Terrorist organizations
1960s: Organized terrorist tactics as a part of political conflict
Middle East, Europe, and Latin America
Specific goals
Ethnic separatism
Establishment of revolutionary governments
1980s and 1990s: A new brand of terrorist organization
Apocalyptic groups called for decisive, world-ending conflict
Eliminating enemies and martyrdom
Origins
Groups from social dislocations of the postwar boom
Radical religion
Divorced themselves from local crises
Al-Qaeda
Radical, Islamist umbrella organization
Created by leaders of the foreign mujahidin who fought against the Soviets in Afghanistan
Osama bin Laden (b. 1957): official leader and financial supporter
Ayman al-Zawahri (b. 1951): linked directly to Sayyid Qutb
Organized broad networks of self-contained terrorist cells around the world
Goals
Did not seek territory or to change governments of specific states
To destroy Israel and America and European and other non-Islamic systems of government
To create an Islamic community held together by faith alone
Terrorist attacks on American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998
September 11, 2001
Hijacked airliners hit the Pentagon, leveled the World Trade Center in New York
Fourth plane crashed in Pennsylvania
A new brand of terror
Deeply indebted to globalization
Extreme, opportunistic violence of marginal groups
United States' response
Attacked Afghanistan, central haven for al-Qaeda
Routed Taliban forces
Did not capture bin Laden
Rebuilding Afghanistan
Persistent fears
Chemical and biological weapons
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
New arms race
Israel
India and Pakistan
America-led invasion of Iraq (2003)
Hussein deposed and captured in December 2003
No WMD found
United States inherited complex reconstruction of broken state
North Korea
Loss of Soviet patronage (1991)
Economic disasters
Pursued development of nuclear arsenal as bargaining chip
Human Rights
Citizenship, rights, and law
International courts and organizations
The globalization of judicial power
Human rights and the western political tradition
John Locke and natural law as the law of reason
The English Bill of Rights
French Declarations of the Rights of Man
Karl Marx and the illusory nature of political rights
Nationalism and human rights
World War I, Versailles, and the League of Nations
World War II and the United Nations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
No state should have absolute power over its citizens
Defined the crime of genocide
Established social rights (education, work, standard of living)
Europe and the United States in the Twenty-First Century
Limits of political and economic integration
Russians unlikely to support former satellite States aligning to the West
Resistance to admitting Turkey to European Union
Financial Meltdown2007-2010
Rethinking of central ideas of neoliberalism
Global failure of the largest financial institutions
Continuation of debate about political and economic liberties
Conflict between ideas of Adam Smith and modern welfare states
Long-standing tension between goals of liberty and equality
Role of the state in remedying social problems
Historical differences between European and U.S. ideas about state intervention
Election of President Obama in 2008
Turning point for the United States?
Using state power to address social problems
Passed healthcare overhauls
Continuation of President's Bush's foreign policy