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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 28
Red Flags And Velvet Revolutions: The End Of The Cold War, 1960-1990
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
From certainty to uncertainty
Consensus and fragmentation
Economic crises
Revolts
The collapse of the Soviet Union
Social Change and Cultural Dynamism, 1945-1968
Economic expansion
Prosperity brought about population shifts (Western Europe)
Importing foreign workers (West Germany and France)
Workers from former colonies emigrated to Britain
The breakdown of national barriers
Agriculture
Productivity soared
Common Market countries sponsored programs of modernization
Eastern bloc countries replaced small holdings with large-scale agriculture
Abundance meant lower food prices
Freed up money for other forms of consumption
Percentage of labor force in agriculture declined
Social class
The middle classes
Growth in number of white-collar employees
The managerial class
More specialized skills
Skillthe ability to monitor automatic controls
The working classes
Trade unions remained powerful institutions
The end of class conflict?The blending of class difference
Extension of education in Western Europe
Eastern European bloc
Mass consumption
Western Europe
Households and individuals had more purchasing power
Vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and telephones
Saving labor and creating a new investment in domesticity ("more work for mother")
The automobile
A consumer culture
Marketing, advertising, and credit payment
Credit now seen as a necessary part of life rather than a stigma
Eastern European bloc
Consumption organized by the state
Determined how consumer goods would be distributed
Channeled resources into heavy industries
General shortages of basic necessities
Mass culture
Music and youth culture
New spending habits
The prolongation of adolescence
Music as the cultural expression of the new generation of youth (1950s)
Radio and magazines
Technological changes
Record players
Music as the soundtrack of everyday life
Rock and roll
Rockabilly
British invasion
Beatles
Woodstock (1969)
Art and painting
The art market boomed
New York as center of modern art
Immigration of European artists
Abstract expressionists
William De Kooning (1904-1997)
Mark Rothko (1903-1970)
Franz Kline (1910-1962)
Jackson Pollock (1912-1956)
Helen Frankenthaler (b. 1928)
Robert Motherwell (1915-1991)
Abstract expressionists experimented with color, texture, and technique
The physical act of painting (Pollock)
"Action painting"
Pop art
Did not distinguish between the artistic and the commercial
Borrowed from graphic design
The everyday visual experience
Jasper Johns (b. 1930)
Andy Warhol (1928-1987)
Roy Lichtenstein (1923-1997)
Film
Italian neorealists
Capturing "life as it was lived"
Loneliness, war, and corruption
Shot on location
Nonlinear plots, unpredictable characters
Roberto Rossellini, Open City (1945)
Vittorio de Sica, The Bicycle Thief (1948)
Federico Fellini, La Dolce Vita (1959) and 8 1/2 (1963)
French New Wave
Unsentimental, naturalistic, and enigmatic social vision
François Truffaut (b. 1932)
400 Blows (1959), The Wild Child (1969)
Jean-Luc Godard (b. 1930)
Breathless (1959), Contempt (1963)
Raised the status of the director
The real art was in the director's hands, not the script
Cannes Film Festival
Hollywood and the Americanization of culture
By the 1950s, Hollywood was making five hundred films a year
Innovations
Conversion to color
Widescreen
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)
Hunting communist sympathizers
Breakdown of American censorship
Television
Marketing and advertising
Rebel Without a Cause (1955)
Exporting American values
Anticommunism
Rebellious teenagers
America as an idea
Gender roles and sexual revolution
Less censorship and fewer taboos
Kinsey reports (1949 and 1955)
Made sexuality and morality front- page news
Was the family crumbling?
The focus of government attention
Higher expectations in marriage
Paid more attention to children
The erosion of paternal authority
The centrality of sex and eroticism
Magazines and sexiness
Health and personal hygiene
Sexuality as self-expression
Contraception
First approved for development in 1959
Simple and could be used by women themselves
Western countries legalized contraception (1960s) and abortion (1970s)
Soviet Union legalized abortion in 1950
Feminism
Family, work, and sexuality
Women in the workplace
Few jobs outside secretarial jobs
Received lower pay for equal work
Had to rely on husbands to establish credit
Self-expression and narrowing horizons
Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (1963)
Exploded cultural myths
Showed how the media shaped (lowered) women's expectations
Founded National Organization of Women in 1966
Social Movements during the 1960s
International social unrest
The Civil Rights Movement in the United States
African American migration from the South to northern cities
Rights, dignity, and independence
National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peoples (NAACP, founded 1909)
National Urban League (founded 1910)
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE, founded 1942)
Boycotts and demonstrations directed against discrimination
Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968)
A philosophy of nonviolence and civil disobedience
Malcolm X (1925-1965)
Black nationalism
Spokesman for Black Muslim Movement
Civil rights legislation (1964)
Some measure of equality in voting rights and school desegregation
White racism continued in housing and job opportunities
The antiwar movement
John F. Kennedy (1917-1963)
Promise to fight communism
Free markets and representative governments for developing nations
The Peace Corps
South Vietnam
Escalation of the war under Lyndon Johnson
Stalemate
Magnified problems at home
Student protest and violence
The student movement
Protest movements had roots in postwar changes in education
France: four hundred thousand high school students in 1949, 2 million by 1969
Similar numbers in Italy, Britain, and West Germany
Lecture halls overwhelmed with students
The university as "knowledge factory"
1968
The collective identity of youth
Points of contention
The consumer culture
Vietnam
Cold bureaucracy
The human cost of the Cold War
The military-industrial complex
Paris
University of Paris
Students demanded reforms that would modernize the university
Authorities closed down the university
Students took to the streets
Parisians and workers sided with the students
Police repression and violence
Trade unions went on strike in support
A weakened Charles de Gaulle
Elsewhere
Student protests in Germany, Italy, England, and Mexico
1968 Olympics
The Tet Offensive
Assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy
Democratic National Convention (Chicago)
Prague Spring
Alexander Dub?ek (1921-1992)
"Socialism with a human face"
Encouraged debate within the party, artistic freedom, and less censorship
Protest overflowed traditional party politics
Leonid Brezhnev (1906-1992)
More conservative than Khrushchev
Less inclined to bargain with the West
Protecting the Soviet sphere of influence
Prague Spring seen as directed against Warsaw Pact and Soviet security
Soviets sent tanks into Prague in August 1968
The Brezhnev doctrine
No socialist state to adopt policies endangering the interests of international socialism
Soviets could intervene if communist rule was threatened
Effects of 1968
De Gaulle's government recovered
Nixon won U.S. election
United States withdrew from Vietnam (1972-1975)
Brezhnev doctrine
Eastern European and Soviet dissent defeated but not eliminated
Second-wave feminism
"The personal is political"
Environmental movement
Voters' loyalties to traditional parties became less reliable
Economic Stagnation: The Price of Success
Roots of the problem
West Germany
Slowing economic growth
Demand for manufactured goods declined
France
Persistent housing shortage
Increased cost of living
Britain
Introduction of new technology
Crisis in the foreign-exchange value of the pound
Continued low levels of growth
Common Market problems
Oil
OPEC countries instituted oil embargo against Western powers in 1973
Inflationary spiral
Interest rates rose along with prices
Rising costs produced demands for higher wages
Europe faced stiff competition from Japan, Asia, and Africa
Soviet Union
Sluggish economic growth despite promises of high production
Eastern Europe shackled by high debt
Poland: cut back on production for domestic consumption
The turn to the right
Britain under Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925)
Curbing trade union power
Cutting taxes to stimulate the economy
Privatizing publicly owned companies
The economy remained weak
European Economic Community (now the Economic Union, EU)
Program of integration
Monetary union with a central European bank
Single currency
Unified social policies
Polish Solidarity (1980)
Worker's demands
Improved working conditions
Lower prices
Independent labor unions
Gdansk shipyards and Lech Walesa (b. 1943)
Europe Recast: The Collapse of Communism and the End of the Soviet Union
The beginning of the end
Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931) assumed leadership of Communist Party in 1985
Critical of repressive aspects of communism and the sluggish economy
Glasnost (intellectual candor) and perestroika (economic restructuring)
Called for the shift from a centrally planned economy to a mixed economy
Freed a number of Soviet dissidents
Revoked Brezhnev doctrine
Gorbachev and perestroika
Competitive elections to official positions and term limits
Shift to a mixed economy
Integrating the Soviet Union into the international economy
Too little, too late
Ethnic unrest
Secession movements
Eastern Europe after Gorbachev
PolandSolidarity launched new wave of strikes in 1988
Hungarynew reform government under the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party
Purged of communist members in 1989
Czechoslovakia
Demonstrations against Soviet domination
The Civic Forumopposition coalition
Free elections
Mass demonstrations
Threats of a general strike
Václav Havel (b. 1936) elected president
East Germany
Severe economic stagnation and environmental degradation
Massive illegal emigration of East Germans to the West
November 4, 1989: East Germany opened its border with Czechoslovakia
November 9, 1989: The Berlin Wall was breached
A united Germany (October 3, 1990)
The velvet revolution
Romania under Nicolae Ceau?escu (1918-1989)
Single-party governments collapsed
Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia claimed independence from Moscow
Lithuania and Latvia proclaimed their independence in 1991
The Soviet Union
The failure of perestroika
The rise of Boris Yeltsin (b. 1931)
Elected president of the Russian Federation
Anti-Gorbachev platform
Mounting protests against slow change (1991)
Hardline communists planned a coup against Gorbachev (August 1991)
Gorbachev incarcerated
The Soviet Union ceased to exist on December 8, 1991
Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991
After the fall of the Soviet Union
Food shortages and the falling value of the ruble
Free enterprise brought crime, corruption, the black market, and a lower standard of living
Yeltsin dissolved parliament in September 1993
The attempted conservative coup
Communist resurgence and the nationalists
Ethnic and religious conflict
Chechnya (1994)
Guerrilla warfare and atrocities
The end of the Cold War
Ethnic conflict
Diplomatic uncertainty about the new Russian government
The Russian "Wild West"
Postrevolutionary Troubles: Eastern Europe after 1989
The Velvet Revolution: the dream
Raised hopes
Economic prosperity and pluralism
Joining the West as capitalist partners
The Velvet Revolution: the reality
Uncertainty after German unification
Difficult to maintain economic and cultural unity
Free market brought inflation, unemployment, and protest
Minorities waged campaigns for autonomous rights
Continued racial and ethnic conflicts
The "velvet divorce"
Slovakia declared its independence from the Czechs
Havel resigned
Yugoslavia
Federalist structure began to unravel after Tito's death (1980)
Uneven economic growth benefited Belgrade, Croatia, and Slovenia
Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Kosovo lagged behind
Slobodan Milosevic (1941-2006)Serb nationalist
Croatia
Declared its independence from Yugoslavia as a free, capitalist state
Catholic Croats versus Orthodox Serbs
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Ethnically diverse population
Sarajevo home to several ethnic groups
Bosnia attempted to secede from Yugoslavia in 1992
Ethnic cleansing
UN intervention
American air strikes (fall 1995)
Forced Bosnian Serbs to negotiate
The Dayton Accords
Bosnia divided
Majority of land went to Muslims and Croats
Three years of war meant two hundred thousand dead
Kosovo
Homeland of Christian Serbs, now occupied by Albanian Muslims
Terrorist tactics
Talks between Milosevic and Albanian rebels fell apart in 1999
American-led bombing against Serbia and Serbian forces in Kosovo
More ethnic cleansing
The fall of Yugoslavia (2000)
Conclusion