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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 27
The Cold War World: Global Politics, Economic Recovery, And Cultural Change
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
Wasteland
Europe as land of wreckage and confusion
Refugees returned home
Housing now scarce, food in short supply
Trauma
The brutality of war
Civil war
Liberation and betrayal
Recovery
Government authority
Functioning bureaucracies
Legitimate legal systems
Memories
The emergence of the superpowers and the Cold War
Collapse of the European empires
The Cold War and a Divided Continent
The Iron Curtain
Teheran (1943) and Yalta (1945) Conferences
Soviets argued they had a legitimate claim to Eastern Europe
Churchill, Stalin, and the percentages agreement (1944)
Dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence
For the Soviets, Eastern Europe was "a sphere and a shield"
The Soviets and Eastern Europe
The "people's republics"
Sympathetic to Moscow
One party took hold of key positions of power
Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech (Fulton, Missouri, 1946)
Communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia (1948)
Yugoslavia
Tito declared his government independent of Moscow in 1948
Drew support from Serbs, Croats, and Muslims in Yugoslavia
Expelled from communist countries' economic and military pacts
Soviet purges in the parties and administrations of satellite governments
Began in the Balkans
Extended through Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Poland
Renewed anti-Semitism
Greece
Local communist-led resistance
British and United States determined to keep Greece in their sphere of influence
Greece as touchstone for escalating American fear of communist expansion
The two Germanys
Four occupied zones became two hostile states
Berlin divided as well
Three Western allies created a single government for their territories in 1948
Passed reforms to ease economic crisis
Introduced a new currency
Soviets retaliated with the Berlin Blockade (June 1948-May 1949)
Cut all roads, trains, and river access from the western zone to West Berlin
The Berlin airlift
The Federal Republic (West Germany)
The German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
The Marshall Plan
U.S. response to Soviet expansion was massive economic and military aid
The Truman Doctrine (1947)
Military assistance to anticommunists in Greece
Tied the contest for political power to economics
The Marshall Plan (1948)
$13 billion of aid for industrial development over four years
Encouraged states to diagnose their own problems and develop solutions
Founded on the idea of coordination between European countries
The building block of future European economic unity
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, April 1949)
United States, Canada, and representatives from Western European states
Greece, Turkey, and West Germany added later
Armed attack against one is an armed attack against all
Eisenhower as senior military commander (1950)
Two worlds and the race for the bomb
Soviet response
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)
Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM, 1947)
Warsaw Pact (1955)
Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, East Germany
The nuclear arms race
Soviets tested an atom bomb in 1949
Soviets and United States both had the hydrogen bomb in 1953
One thousand times more powerful than the Hiroshima explosion
Intercontinental missiles and delivery systems
Atomic-powered submarines
The "nuclearization of warfare"
Polarized the Cold War
Forced other countries to join United States or Soviets
Generated fears that local conflicts might trigger a general war
The bomb as symbol of an age
Science, technology, and progress
The threat of mass destruction
Was the Cold War inevitable?
Stalin's ambitions fueled the Cold War
United States feared Soviet expansion
Unwilling to give up military, economic, and political power
Trust was impossible
A new balance of power
George Kennan and the policy of containment
Domestic intensification of the Cold War
Anxiety
Air raid drills, spy trials, the menacing "other"
Khrushchev and the thaw
Death of Stalin (March 1953)
Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) came to power in 1956
Agreed to summit with Britain, France, and the United States
The Secret Speech (1956)
Denounced Stalinist excesses
Allowed rehabilitation of some of Stalin's victims
"De-Stalinization"
The thaw (1956-1958)
Camps released thousands of prisoners
The rehabilitation of relatives of those executed or imprisoned under Stalin
Cultural expression freed up
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962)
The First Circle (1968)
The Gulag Archipelago (Paris, 1973)
Arrest and exile
Repression in Eastern Europe
East German government faced economic crisis in 1953
Fifty-eight thousand East Germans left for the West
Strikes and unrest
Walter Ulbricht used fears of disorder to solidify one-party rule
Poland
Demands for more independence to manage their own economy (1956)
Government responded with military repression and promises of liberalization
Wladyslaw Gomulka pledged Poland's loyalty to the Warsaw Pact
Hungary
Imre Nagy: nationalist and communist
Much broader anticommunist struggle
Attempted to leave Warsaw Pact
Soviet troops entered Budapest on November 4, 1956
Hungarian citizens resorted to street fighting
The Soviets installed Janos Kadar
Staunch (Moscow) Communist
The repression continues
Khrushchev and "peaceful coexistence"
NATO placed nuclear weapons in West Germany
East Germans continued to flee (2.7 million between 1949 and 1961)
Khrushchev demanded a permanent division of Germany with a free city of Berlin
The Berlin wall (1961)
Economic Renaissance
The economic "miracle"
War provided technologies with practical and immediate applications
Improved communications
Manufacture of synthetic materials, aluminum, and alloy steels
Advances in techniques of prefabrication
High consumer demand and high levels of employment
The role of government
The necessity of planning
West Germany provided tax breaks to encourage business investment
Britain and Italy offered investment allowances
Broad experiments with the nationalization of industry and services
"Mixed economies" providing public and private ownership
Franceelectricity, gas, banking, radio, television, and auto industry are state-managed
Britaincoal, utilities, road and rail transport, and banking are nationalized
West Germany experienced unprecedented economic growth
Production increased sixfold (1948-1964)
Unemployment reached 0.4 percent (1965)
New housing units built
German demand for labor attracted foreign workers
France
Government played direct role in industrial reform
Capital, expertise, shifts in national labor pool
Priority to basic industries
Italy
Heavy subsidies from Marshall Plan
Olivetti, Fiat, and Pirelli became household names
By 1954, real wages 50 percent higher than they had been in 1938
Poverty continued to remain high in agrarian south
Britain
Harold Macmillan, "You've never had it so good" (1959)
The economy remained sluggish
Obsolete factories and methods
Unwillingness to adopt new techniques
European economic integration
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC, 1951)
Coal accounted for 82 percent of Europe's primary energy consumption
Key to relations between West Germany and France
European Economic Community (EEC or Common Market)
France, West Germany, Italy, Britain, Holland, and Luxembourg
Abolition of trade barriers
Committed to common external tariffs
The free movement of labor
A unified wage structure and social security systems
The "Eurocrats"
Britain
Feared effects of ECSC on declining coal industry
Continued to rely on economic relations with the Empire and Commonwealth
EEC became the world's largest exporter (1963)
Total production 70 percent higher than it had been in 1950
Bretton Woods (July 1944)
Aimed to coordinate movements of the global economy
Created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank
All currencies pegged to the dollar
Economic development in Eastern Europe
National income rose and output increased
Poland and Hungary strengthened their economic connections with the West
30 percent of Eastern European trade done outside the Soviet bloc (1970s)
COMECON compelled other members to trade with the Soviet Union
The welfare state
Economic expansion promised more comprehensive social programs
"Welfare state" coined by Clement Atlee (British Labour Party)
Britain
Free medical healthcare through the National Health Service
Assistance to families
Guaranteed secondary education
Welfare relief as entitlement and not poor relief
T. H. Marshall, social rights, and social democracy
European politics
Pragmatism
Konrad Adenauer
West German chancellor (1949-1963)
Despised German militarism
Remained apprehensive about German parliamentary government
General Charles de Gaulle and the Fifth French Republic
Retired from politics in 1946
Returned to office after Algerian War (1958)
Insisted on a new constitution
Strengthened executive branch of government
France withdrew from NATO in 1966
Cultivated better relations with Soviet Union
Modern military establishment, with atomic weapons
Revolution, Anticolonialism, and the Cold War
The Third World
Avoiding alignment with either superpower
The Chinese Revolution (1949)
Civil war since 1926
Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975) nationalist
Mao Zedong (1893-1976)communist
Nationalists and communists defeated Japan
Mao refused to surrender northern provinces
U.S. intervention
The revolution was the act of a nation of peasants
Mao adapted Marxism to Chinese conditions
The "loss of China" provoked fear in the West
United States considered China and the Soviet Union to be a "communist bloc"
The Korean War
A Cold War hot spot
Korea under Japanese control during World War II
Post-1945: Soviets controlled North (Kim Jong II) and United States controlled South (Syngman Rhee)
North Korean troops attacked across the border (June 1950)
United States brought invasion to the attention of the UN Security Council
UN permitted an American-led "police action"
General Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964)
Former military governor of occupied Japan
Led amphibious assault behind North Korean lines
Wanted to press assault into China
Relieved of duty by Truman
Chinese troops supported North Koreans
Stalemate
The end of the Korean conflict (June 1953)
Korea remained divided
Decolonization
The decline of older empires
Nationalist movements and independence
The British Empire unravels
India
Post-1945: waves of Indian protest for Britain to quit India
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948)
Pioneered anticolonial ideas and tactics
Advocated swaraj (self-rule), nonviolence, and civil disobedience
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)
Led the pro-independence Congress Party
Ethnic and religious conflict
The Muslim League
British India partitioned into India (majority Hindu) and Pakistan (majority Muslim)
Brutal religious and ethnic warfare
Gandhi assassinated in January 1948
Nehru as prime minister of India (1947-1964)
Program of industrialization and modernization
Steered a course of nonalignment with Soviet Union and United States
Palestine
Balfour Declaration (1917)
Promised a "Jewish homeland" in Palestine for European Zionists
Rising conflict between Jewish settlers and Arabs (1930s)
British limited further immigration (1939)
A three-way war
Palestinian Arabsfighting for land and independence
Jewish settlers determined to defy British rule
British administrators with divided sympathies
United Nations partitioned territory into two states
Israel declared independence in May 1948
Palestinian Arabs clustered in refugee camps
Gaza strip
West bank of the Jordan River
Israel recognized by United States and Soviet Union
Africa
Several West African colonies moved toward independence
Britain left constitutions and a legal system but no economic support
Ghana seen as model for African free nations (1960)
More African colonies gained independence
Could not redress losses from colonialism
Mau Mau Rebellion (Kenya)
Killing of civilians
British set up internment camps
Britain tolerated apartheid in South Africa
Required Africans to live in designated "homelands"
Forbade Africans to travel without permits
The management of labor
Banned political protest
Rhodesia declared independence (1945)
Crisis in Suez and the end of an era
Britain found the cost of maintaining naval and air bases too high
Protected oil-rich states of the Middle East
Nationalists forced British to withdraw troops from Egypt within three years (1951)
King Farouk (1921-1965) deposed by nationalist officers. and a republic is proclaimed (1952)
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970)
Became Egyptian president
Nationalization of the Suez Canal Company
Financing the Aswan Dam
Pan-Arabism
Willing to take aid and support from the Soviets
Israel, France, and Britain found pan-Arabism threatening
Egypt attacked by Israel, France, and Britain (1956)
United States inflicted financial penalties on Britain and France, and they were forced to withdraw
French decolonization
The French experience
Decolonization was bloodier, more difficult, and more damaging to French prestige
The first Vietnam War, 1946-1954
The French in Indochinaone of France's last imperial acquisitions
Nationalist and communist independence movements
Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
Hoped for independence at Versailles (1919)
Marxist peasants organized around social, agrarian, and national issues
Allies supported communist independence movement
Vietnamese guerrilla war against the French
French pressed on for total victory
French established a base at Dien Bien Phu (fell in May 1954)
French began peace talks at Geneva
The Geneva Accords
Indochina divided into four countries
North Vietnamtaken over by Ho Chi Minh's party
South Vietnamtaken over by pro-Western politicians
A virtual guarantee that war would continue
Algeria
Since the 1830s, a settler state of three social groups
One million Europeans (farmers, vintners, working class, small merchants)
Muslim Berbers (formal and informal privileges)
Muslim Arabs (largest and most deprived sector)
Post-1945: Algerian nationalists called on the Allies to recognize their independence
Public demonstrations
Violence against settlers
French repression
France granted limited enfranchisement
Settlers and Berber Muslims
Arabs
Arab activists form the National Liberation Front (FLN) in the mid-1950s
Civil war on many fronts
Guerrilla war between regular French army and FLN
FLN terrorism in Algerian cities
Systematic torture by French security forces
De Gaulle declared that Algeria would always be French
Algeria declared its independence by referendum in 1962
The war divided French society
The identity of France
Postwar Culture and Thought
The black presence
Présence Africaine (published at Paris, 1947)
Aimé Césaire (b. 1913) and Léopold Senghor (1906-2001)
Both men were exponents of Negritude (black consciousness)
Assimilation was a failure
Powerful indictments of colonialism
Frantz Fanon (1925-1961)
Withdrawing into black culture was not an answer to racism
A theory of radical social change
Black Skin, White Masks (1952)
The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
Pointed to the ironies of Europe's "civilizing mission"
The reevaluation of blackness
Existentialism
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) and Albert Camus (1913-1960)
Individuality, commitment, and choice
"Existence precedes essence"
Meaning in life is not given, it is created
"Individuals are condemned to be free"
"Bad faith"denying one's freedom
Camus: The Stranger (1942), The Plague (1947), and The Fall (1956)
Existentialism and race
Race derived meaning from lived experience
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)
The Second Sex (1949)
"One is not born a woman, one becomes one"
Asked why women dream the dreams of men?
Marx, Freud, and the "woman question"
Memory and amnesia: the aftermath of war
Individual helplessness in the face of state power
George Orwell (1903-1950) Animal Farm (1946) and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)
Samuel Beckett (1906-1989) Waiting for Godot (1953)
Harold Pinter (b. 1930)The Caretaker (1960) and Homecoming (1965)
R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973) The Lord of the Rings (1954-1955)
The Frankfurt School
Theodore Adorno (1903-1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973)
Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947)
Indictment of the "culture industry" for depoliticizing the masses
Hannah Arendt (1906-1975)
Nazism and Stalinism should be understood as a form of totalitarianism
The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
Totalitarianism worked by mobilizing mass support
Used terror to crush resistance
The atomization of the public
Made collective resistance impossible
Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963)
Refused to demonize Nazism
Genocide as simply one more Nazi policy
Reaching a larger audience
Jerzy Kosinski, The Painted Bird (1965)
Czeslaw Milosz, The Captive Mind (1951)
Günter Grass, The Tin Drum (1959)
The Diary of Anne Frank (1947)
Repressing the past
War crimes and trials
Few executions led to cynicism
Mythologizing the resistance movement
The Cold War and the burying and distortion of memory
Conclusion
Fidel Castro
The Bay of Pigs (1961)
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
Dr. Strangelove (1964)
Eisenhower and the military-industrial complex