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Chapter 23
Modern Industry And Mass Politics, 1870-1914
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
Marinetti and futurism
A radical renewal of civilization through "courage, audacity, and revolt"
The beauty of speed
The heroic violence of warfare
A radically new world
Second industrial revolution
New demands in the political arena
Socialist mobilization of industrial workers
White suffragists demand the franchise
The challenge of the twentieth century
New Technologies and Global Transformations
New technologies
Steel
Between the 1850s and 1870s, the cost of producing steel decreased
Steel industry dominated by Germany and the United States
Electricity
By the 1880s, alternators and transformers produce high-voltage alternating current
Edison invented the incandescent filament lamp in 1879
Chemicals
Efficient production of alkali and sulfuric acid
Transformed manufacture of paper, soaps, textiles, and fertilizer
British led the way in soaps and cleaners and in mass marketing
German production focused on industrial usessynthetic dyes and refining petroleum
The liquid-fuel internal combustion engine
By 1914, most navies had converted from coal to oil
Discovery of oil fields in Russia, Borneo, Persia, and Texas
Discovering the potential for worldwide industrialization
Changes in scope and scale
Technological changes created changes in scope and scale of industry
Technology as cause and consequence of the race toward a bigger, faster, cheaper, and more efficient world
The rise of heavy industry and mass marketing
National mass cultures
Watched as Europe divided the globe
Feats of engineering mastery
The ideals of modern European industry
Changes
Population grew constantly
Food shortages declined
Populations less susceptible to illness, lower infant mortality
Advances in medicine, nutrition, and personal hygiene
Improved housing and sanitation
Consumption
Consumption as a center of economic activity and theory
The appearance of the department store
Modern advertising
Credit payments
New patterns of consumption were decidedly urban
The rise of the corporation
Economic growth and demands of mass consumption spurred the reorganization of capitalist institutions
The modern corporation appeared
Limited-liability laws
Stockholders would only lose their share value in the event of bankruptcy
Middle classes now considered corporate investment promising
Size and control
Larger corporations became necessary for survival
Control shifted from the family to distant bankers and financiers
An ethos of impersonal finance capital
Demand for technical expertise
Undercut traditional forms of family management
University-trained engineers
The white-collar class: middle-level salaried managers, neither owners nor laborers
Consolidation would protect industries from cyclical fluctuations and unbridled competition
Vertical integration
Industries controlled every step of production
From acquisition of raw materials to distribution of finished goods
Andrew Carnegie's steel company in Pittsburgh
Horizontal integration
Organized into cartels
Companies in the same industry would band together
Fixing prices and controlling competition
Coal, oil, and steel were particularly well adapted
Rockefeller's Standard Oil
Dominant trend was increased cooperation between government and industry
Appearance of businessmen and financiers as officers of state
International economics
Search for markets, goods, and influence fueled imperial expansion
Trade barriers arose to protect home markets
All nations except Britain raised tariffs
An interlocking, worldwide system of manufacturing, trade, and finance
Near-universal adoption of the gold standard
Most European countries imported more than they exported
Relied on "invisible" exports: shipping, insurance, and banking
London as money market of the world
Mass manufacturing and commodity production changed patterns of consumption and production
Labor Politics, Mass Movements
Changes in the European working class
In general, workers resented corporate power
The "new unionism"
Labor unions evolved into mass, centralized, national organizations
Organization across whole industries
Brought unskilled workers into the ranks
Gave labor power to negotiate wages and conditions of work
Provided the framework for the socialist mass party
Changes in national political structure
Opened the political process to new participants
Efforts to expand the franchise (1860s-1870s)
New constituencies of working-class men
Labor's struggle with capital cast on a national scale
Socialist organizations abandoned their insurrectionary radicalism and opted for reform
Karl Marx
Published first volume of Das Kapital in 1867)
Attacked capitalism in terms of political economy
A systematic analysis of production
The Marxist appeal
Provided a crucial foundation for building a democratic mass politics
Made powerful claims for gender equality
The promise of a better future
The workers' movement
The First International (1864-1876)
Some followed Marx
Others followed the Russian anarchist, Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876)
The spread of socialist partiesand alternatives
Marxist socialism spread to social democratic parties in Germany, Belgium, France, Austria, and Russia
Disciplined, politicized workers' organizations
Aimed at seizing control of the state for revolutionary change
The model of all socialist parties was the German Social Democratic Party (SPD, founded 1875)
Strove for political change within Germany's parliamentary system
Eventually adopted an explicitly Marxist platform
Before World War I, the Social Democrats were the best-organized workers' party in the world: explanations
Rapid and extension industrialization
Large urban working class
A new parliamentary constitution
A national government hostile to organized labor
No tradition of liberal reform
Britain
Labour Party (1901)
Remained moderate and committed to incremental reform
Anarchism
Opposed to centrally organized economics and politics
Advocated small-scale, localized democracy
Similar foundations as Marxism, but different approaches to change
Conspiratorial vanguard violence
The assassination of Tsar Alexander II (1881)
Bakunin: "exemplary terror" could spark popular revolt
Syndicalism
Demanded that workers share ownership and control of the means of production
The capitalist state must be replaced by workers' syndicates or trade associations
Called for mass forms of direct action
The limits of success
Socialist parties never gained full worker support
Some workers retained loyalty to liberal traditions or religious affiliation
Others were excluded
What constituted the working class?
German revisionism
Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932) called for a shift to moderate reform
German radicals
Rosa Luxembourg (1870-1919) called for mass strikes, hoping to ignite a proletarian revolution
Conflict over strategy and tactics reached its climax in the years before World War I
Demanding Equality: Suffrage and the Women's Movement
Women's rights
By 1884, Germany, France, and Britain had enfranchised most men
Women relegated to status as second-class citizens
Women pressed their interests through independent organizations and forms of direct action
Women's organizations
General German Women's Association
Pressed for educational and legal reforms
Votes became the symbol for women's ability to attain full personhood
Middle-class women founded clubs, published journals, organized petitions
British women's suffrage campaigns
Exploded in violence
Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929)
National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (1897)
Composed of sixteen different organizations
Her movement lacked political and economic clout
Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928)
Founded the Women's Social and Political Union (1903)
Adopted tactics of militancy and civil disobedience
Women chained themselves to the visitor's gallery in the House of Commons
Slashed paintings in museums
Disrupted political meetings
Burned the homes of politicians
The British government countered this violence with repression
Six-hour riot between suffragists and police in 1910
The martyrdom of Emily Wilding Davison (1913)
Redefining womanhood
Campaign for women's suffrage helped redefine Victorian gender roles
The increasing visibility of women
Middle-class women and work
Worked as social workers and clerks, nurses, and teachers
British women established their own colleges at Oxford and Cambridge in the 1870s and 1880s
Women, politics, and reform
Poor relief, prison reform, temperance movements, abolition of slavery, education
The "new" woman
Demanded education and a job
Claimed the right to be physically and intellectually active
The new woman as image
Few women actually fitted the image created by artists and journalists
Opposition
Never exclusively male opposition
Mrs. Humphrey Ward women in politics would sap the strength of the empire
Christian commentators criticized suffragists for moral decay
Others argued that feminism would dissolve the family
Liberalism and Its Discontents: National Politics at the Turn of the Century
Late-nineteenth-century liberalism
Middle-class liberals found themselves on the defensive after 1870
Mass politics upset the balance between middle-class interests and traditional elites
Trade unions, socialists, and feminists all challenged Europe's governing class
The government's response was a mixture of conciliation and repression
What was required was a distinctly modern form of mass politics
France: the embattled republic
Franco-Prussian War (1870) a humiliating defeat for France
Government of the Second Empire collapsed
The Third Republic
A new constitution (1875)
Triumph of democratic and parliamentary principles
Class conflict
The Paris Commune (1871)
Pitted the nation against the radical city of Paris
Paris refused to surrender to the Germans
Paris proclaimed itself to be the true government of France
Government sends troops to Paris in March 1871
Barricades and street fighting
Twenty-five thousand were executed, killed in fighting, or consumed in fires
The Dreyfus Affair and anti-Semitism as politics
French anti-Semitism: a new form of radical right-wing politics (nationalist, antiparliamentary, and antiliberal)
The Dreyfus Affair (1894)
Dreyfus convicted of selling military secrets to Germany
Sent to Devil's Island
The verdict was questioned and documents were proven to be forgeries (1896)
émile Zola (1840-1902) backed Dreyfus
Blasted the French establishment in "J'accuse" (I Accuse)
Dreyfus eventually freed in 1899 and cleared of all guilt in 1906
Consequences
Separation of church and state in France
Republicans saw church army as hostile toward the republic
Merged three strands of anti-Semitism
Christian anti-Semitism (Jews as Christ killers)
Economic anti-Semitism (Rothschild as representative of all Jews)
Racial thinking (Jews as an inferior race)
An ideology of hatred
Jews in the army subverted national purpose
Mass culture corrupted French culture
Jews and wealth
La Libre Parole (Free Speech, 1892), the Anti-Semitic League, and Jewish France (1886)
The Third Republic
Showed that the radical right and anti-Semitism were plainly political forces
Zionism: Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
Considered the Dreyfus Affair to be an expression of a fundamental problem
Jews might never be assimilated into European culture
Endorsed Zionismbuilding a separate Jewish homeland outside Europe
Zionism as a modern nationalist movement
The State of the Jews (1896)
Convened the first Zionist Congress in Switzerland in 1897
Germany's search for imperial unity
Bismarck united Germany under the banner of Prussian conservatism (1864-1871)
Sought to create the centralizing institutions of a modern state
Safeguarding the privileges of Germany's national interests
The conservative upper house (Bundesrat) and the democratic lower house (Reichstag)
Executive power rested solely with William I (1797-1888, r. 1861- 1888), king and kaiser (emperor)
Cabinet ministers answered only to the kaiser
Three problems
Divide between Catholics and Protestants
Growing Social Democratic Party
Divisive economic interests of agriculture and industry
Kulturkampf (cultural struggle)
Bismarck unleashed an anti-Catholic campaign
Apealed to sectarian tensions over public education and civil marriages
Passed laws that imprisoned priests for political sermons
Banned Jesuits from Prussia
The campaign backfired
Catholic Center Party won seats in the Reichstag in 1874
Bismarck negotiated an alliance with the Catholic Center
The new coalition
Agricultural and industrial interests as well as socially conservative Catholics
Social Democrats as the new enemies of the empire
Bismarck passed antisocialist laws in 1878
Expelled socialists from major cities
Social welfare
Workers guaranteed sickness and accident insurance
Rigorous factory inspection
Limited working hours for women and children
Old-age pensions
Social welfare legislation did not win the loyalty of workers
William II (1859-1941, r. 1888-1918)
Suspended antisocialist legislation in 1890 and legalized the SPD
Britain: from moderation to militance
The Second Reform Bill (1867)
Liberal and Conservative political parties
New laws
Legality of trade unions
Rebuilding large urban areas
Elementary education for all children
Male Dissenters can attend Oxford or Cambridge
75 percent of adult males enfranchised by 1894
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) Conservative and William Gladstone (1809-1898)Liberal
Both offered moderate programs that appealed to a widening electorate
The moderate working class
The Independent Labour Party (1901)
1906 welfare legislation
David Lloyd George (1863-1945) and the People's Budget of 1909
Progressive income and inheritance taxes
Problems
Liberal parliamentary framework began to show signs of collapse
Nationwide strikes of coal and railway workers
Irish radical nationalists began to favor armed revolution
Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Brotherhood
Home Rule tabled (1913)
Russia: the road to revolution
Internal conflicts and an autocratic political system
Threatened by Western industrialization and Western political doctrines
Russian industrialization (1880s-1890s)
State-directed industrial development
Serfs emancipated in 1861
No independent middle class capable of raising capital
Heightened social tensions
Workers left their villages temporarily to work and then returned for planting and harvest
The legal system
No recognition of trade unions or employers' associations
Outdated banking and finance laws
Alexander II (1818-1888, r. 1855-1881)
The "Tsar Liberator"
Tightened restrictions
Set up zemstvos, provincial land and county assemblies (1804)
Curtailed the rights of zemstvos, censorship of the press
Assassinated by a radical
Alexander III (1845-1894, r. 1881-1894)
Steered the country toward the right
Stern repression
Curtailed power of the zemstvos
Increased authority of the secret police
Nicholas II (1868-1918, r. 1894-1917)
Continued these "counterreforms"
Advocated Russification to extend the language, religion, and culture of Greater Russia
Pogroms and open anti-Semitism
The Populists
Russia to modernize on its own terms, not those of the West
Based on the ancient village commune (mir)
Mostly middle class, students, and women
Overthrowing the tsar through anarchy and insurrection
Dedicated their lives to the people
Read Marx's Capital and emphasized peasant socialism
Russian Marxism
Organized as the Social Democratic Party
Concentrated on urban workers
Russian autocracy would give way to capitalism
Capitalism would give way to a classless society
Social Democratic Party split (1903)
Bolsheviks (majority group)
Called for a central party organization of active revolutionaries
Rapid industrialization meant they did not have to follow Marx
Mensheviks (minority group)
Gradualist approach
Reluctant to depart from Marxist orthodoxy
Lenin
Leader of the Bolsheviks while in exile
Coordinated socialist movement
Russia was ripe for revolution
What Is to Be Done? (1902)
The first Russian Revolution (1905)
Causes
The Russo-Japanese War
Rapid industrialization had transformed Russia unevenly
Low grain prices resulted in peasant uprisings
Student radicalism
Russian inefficiency
Radical workers organized strikes and demonstrations
Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905)
Two hundred thousand workers led by Father Gapon demonstrated at the Winter Palace
Guard troops killed 130 and wounded several hundred
The protest grew
Merchants closed stores
Factory owners shut down factories
Lawyers refused to hear cases
The autocracy had lost control
Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto
Guaranteed individual liberties
Moderately liberal franchise for the election of a Duma
Genuine legislative veto powers for the Duma
Nicholas failed to see that fundamental change was needed
1905-1907: Nicholas revoked most of the promises made in October
Deprived the Duma of its principal powers
Peter Stolypin (1862-1911) and the Stolypin reforms (1906-1911)
Agrarian reforms for the sale of 5 million acres of royal land to peasants
Granted peasants permission to withdraw for the mir
Canceled peasant property debts
Legalized trade unions
Established sickness and accident insurance
Russian agriculture remained suspended between emerging capitalism and the peasant commune
Nationalism and imperial politics: the Balkans
Rising nationalism divides the disintegrating Ottoman Empire
Uprisings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria (1875-1876)
Reports of atrocities against Christians
Led to the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
The Treaty of San Stefano
Terminated the conflict
Forced the Turkish sultan to surrender all of his European territory
The great powers intervened
The Treaty of Berlin (1878)
Bessarabia to Russia, Thessaly to Greece
Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control
Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania become independent states
The independent kingdom of Bulgaria (1908)
Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina
Turkish nationalism
Turks had grown impatient with weakness of the sultan
The Young Turks
Forced the sultan to establish a constitutional government in 1908
Mohammed V (1909-1918) came to the throne
Launched effort to "Ottomanize" all imperial subjects
Tried to bring Christian and Muslim communities under more centralized control
Spread Turkish culture
The Science and the Soul of the Modern Age
Darwin's revolutionary theory
Organic evolution by natural selection transformed the conception of nature itself
An unsettling new picture of human biology, behavior, and society
Jean Lamarck (1744-1829)
Behavioral changes could alter physical characteristics within a single generation
New traits could be passed on to offspring
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
The Origin of Species (1859)
Five years aboard
H.M.S. Beagle
Observed manifold variations of animal life
Theorized that variations within a population made certain individuals better adapted for survival
Drew on the population theories of Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
Malthusian competition led to adaptation and ultimately survival
Darwin used natural selection to explain the origin of new species
Applied theory to plant and animal species as well as to man
The Descent of Man (1871)
The human race had evolved from an apelike ancestor
Darwinian theory and religion
Darwinian theory challenged deeply held religious beliefs
Sparked a debate on the existence of God
For Darwin, the world was not governed by order, harmony, and divine will but by random chance and struggle
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895)
Argued against Christians appalled by the implications of Darwinism
Called himself an agnostic
Opposed to all dogma
You should follow reason as far as it can take you
The rise of the social sciences
Influence of Darwinism on sociology, psychology, anthropology, and economics
New ways of quantifying and interpreting human experience
Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Applied individual competition to classes, races, and nations
Coined the expression "survival of the fittest"
Condemned all forms of collectivismthe individual who "fit" was all-important
Popularized notions of social Darwinism were easy to comprehend
Integrated into popular vocabulary
Justified the natural order of rich and poor
Nationalists used social Darwinism to rationalize imperialism and warfare
Also used to justify racial hierarchy and white superiority
Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche
The irrational and animalistic side of human nature
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
"Classical conditioning"
A random stimulus can produce a physical reflex reaction
Behaviorism
Eschewed mind and consciousness
Focused on physiological responses to the environment
Sigmund Freud (1856-1936)
Behavior largely motivated by unconscious and irrational forces
Unconscious drives and desires conflict with the rational and moral conscience
The psyche
Id: undisciplined desires for pleasure and gratification
Superego: the conscience (conditioned by morality and culture)
Ego: area where the conflict between id and superego is worked out
An objective (scientific) understanding of human behavior
Anxiety over the value and limits of human reason
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) and the attack on tradition
Middle-class culture dominated by illusions and self-deceptions
Rejected rational argumentation
Bourgeois faith in science, progress, and democracy as a futile search for truth
Ridiculed Judeo-Christian morality for instilling a repressive conformity
Themes of personal liberation
Religion and its critics
The Roman Catholic Church on the defensive
Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors in 1864
Condemned materialism, free thought, and religious relativism
Convoked a church council (first one since the late sixteenth century)
Doctrine of papal infallibility
Denounced by the governments of several Catholic countries
Pope Leo XIII
Brought a more accommodating climate to the Church
Acknowledged that there is good and evil in modern civilization
Added a scientific staff to the Vatican, opened archives and observatories
Protestants
Little in the way of doctrine to help them defend their faith
Pragmatism (Charles Peirce and William James)
Truth was whatever produced useful, practical results
If belief in God provided mental peace, then that belief was true
New readers and the popular press
Facilitated the spread of new ideas
Rising literacy rates and new forms of printed mass culture
Journalism
Emphasis on the sensational
Advertising
"Yellow" journalismentertainment, sensationalism, and the news
The first moderns: innovations in art
Modernism
Questioning the moral and cultural values of liberal, middle-class society
Characteristics
Self-conscious sense of rupture from history and tradition
Rejection of established values
Insistence on an expressive and experimental freedom
A new understanding of the relationship between art and society
Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944)
Devotee of occult mysticism
The role of the visionary artist
From soulless materialism to the psychic-spiritual life
The revolt on canvas
Modernism defined itself in opposition to the past
A rejection of mainstream academic art
Against the "shackles of verisimilitude" (Gauguin)
Artists begin to turn their backs on the visual world
New focus on the subjective, Psychologically oriented forms of self-expression
French Impressionism
Attempted to objectively record natural phenomena
Captured the transitory play of light on surfaces
The legacies of Claude Monet (1840-1926) and Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)
Paved the way for younger artists to experiment more freely
Impressionist artists organized their own independent exhibitions
Post-Impressionism
Paul Cézanne (1839-1906)
Reducing natural forms to geometric equivalents
Emphasis on subjective arrangement of color and form
Art as a vehicle for an artist's self-expression
Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890)
Explored art's expressive potential with greater emotion and subjectivity
German Expressionism
Emil Nolde (1867-1956)
Disillusionment with modern society
Painters turned to acidic tones, violent figural distortions, and crude depictions of sexuality
Edvard Munch (1863-1944) and Egon Schiele (1890-1918)
Henri Matisse (1869-1954) and Pablo Picasso (1869-1954)
Cubists, vorticists, and futurists
Embraced a hard, angular aesthetic of the machine age
The uncertainty of the future
Conclusion
Progress and the forces of change
Decline and the forces of change