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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 19
The Industrial Revolution And Nineteenth-Century Society
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
An industrial revolution
From agriculture and craft to large-scale manufacturing
Capital-intensive enterprises
Urbanization
New forms of energy
Led to unprecedented economic growth
Altered the balance of humanity
Mechanization
Gains in productivity
Shifted the basis of the economy
New livelihoods
Did not dispense with human toilthe intensification of human labor
New social classes and new social tensions
"Industry"from industriousness to an economic system
Partial causes
New territories
Economic expansion
Expanding networks of trade and finance
New markets for goods and sources for raw materials
Population growth
Regional variations
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1760-1850
Why England?
Natural, economic, and cultural resources
Small and secure island
Empire
Ample supply of coal, rivers, and a developed canal system
The commercialization of agriculture
New techniques and crops, changes in property-holding
Enclosure
Yielded more food for a growing population
Concentration of property in fewer hands
Growing supply of available capital
Well-developed banking and credit institutions
London as leading center for international trade
Investment and entrepreneurship
Pursuit of wealth seen as a worthy goal
The British as a commercial people
Domestic and foreign markets
The British were voracious consumers
A well-integrated domestic market
No system of internal tolls and tariffs
A constantly improving transportation system
Favorable political climate
Foreign policy responded to commercial needs of the nation
Production for export rose 80 percent between 1750 and 1770
The British merchant marine and navy
Innovation in the textile industries
The British prohibited the import of East Indian cottons
Textile manufacturers imported raw cotton from India and the American South
Revolutionary breakthroughs
John Kaythe flying shuttle (1733)
John Hargreavesthe spinning jenny (1764)
Richard Arkwrightthe water frame (1769)
Samuel Cromptonthe spinning mule (1799)
Eli Whitneythe cotton gin (1793)
Textile machines
First machines inexpensive enough to be used by spinners in their homes
As machines grew in size, they were located in mills and factories
By 1780, British cotton textiles flooded the world market
A revolution in clothing
Cotton was light, durable, and washable
Large domestic and foreign market for cotton cloth
The tyranny of the new industries
Factory working conditions and the factory acts
Coal and iron
Technological changes
Coke smelting, rolling, and puddling
Substitution of coal for wood
Thomas Newcomenfashioned an engine to pump water from mines in 1711
James Watt and Matthew Boultonthe steam engine
289 engines in use by 1800
The coming of railways
George Stephenson and the Stockton-to- Darlington line (1825)
Railway construction as enterprise
Risky but profitable
Global opportunitiesbuilding the infrastructure of nations
The "navvies"
Toil and technology
Steam and speed as a new way of life
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent
A different model of industrialization
Reasons for the delay
Lack of raw materials, especially coal
Poor national systems of transportation
Little readily accessible capital
Tenacity of the small peasant leaseholder
The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
Economic climate changes after 1815
Population growth (parts of France, Belgium, Rhineland, Saxony, Silesia, and Bohemia)
New railway construction
Older methods of putting-out persisted alongside factory work
Governments played a major role in subsidizing industry
Subsidies to private companies (railroads and mining)
Incentives for and laws favorable to industrialization
Limited liability laws
Mobilizing capital
Joint-stock investment banks
Société Générale (Belgium, 1830s)
Creditanstalt (Austria,1850s)
Crédit Mobilier (1850s)
Promoting invention and technological development
State-established educational systems
Industrialization after 1850
Individual British factories remained Small, but output was tremendous
Iron industry the largest in the world
Continental changes
Mostly in transport, commerce, and government policy
Free trade and the removal of trade barriers
Guild controls relaxed or abolished
Communications
Transatlantic cable (1865)
Telephone (1876)
New chemical processes, dyestuffs, and pharmaceuticals
New sources of energyelectricity and oil
Internal combustion engine (Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, 1880s)
Eastern Europe
Developed into concentrated, commercialized agriculture
The persistence of serfdom
The industrial core
Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, and Switzerland
The industrial periphery
Russia, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania, and Serbia
Industry and empire
European nations begin to control the national debts of other countries
Where trade agreements could not be made, force prevailed
New networks of trade and interdependence
The world economy divided
Producers of manufactured goods (Europe)
Suppliers of raw materials and buyers of finished goods (everyone else)
Toward a global economy
The Social Consequences of Industrialization
Population
Europe: 205 million (1800), 274 million (1850), 414 million (1900), 480 million (1914)
Explanations
Fatal diseases became less virulent
Edward Jenner and smallpox vaccination (1796)
Improved sanitation
Governments became more concerned with improving the lives of their people
Less expensive foods of high nutritional value
Rising fertility
Men and women married earlier
Rural manufacture allowed couples to marry and set up households
More people married
Life on the land: the peasantry
Rural poverty
Harsh conditions of the countryside
Millions of tiny farms produced a bare subsistence
Rising population put pressure on the land
Unpredictability of weather and the harvest
Great Famine of 1845-1849
Potato blight
No alternative food source
At least one million Irish died of starvation
Forced 1.5 million people to leave Ireland for good
The role of the state
Became more sympathetic to commercialized agriculture
Encouraged the elimination of small farms and the creation of larger farms
Serfdom
Landowners and serfs had little incentive to improve farming or land management
Serfdom made it difficult to buy and sell land freely
An obstacle to the commercialization and consolidation of agriculture
Industrialization in the countryside
Improved communication networks
Government intervention in the countryside
Centralized bureaucracies
Made it easier to collect taxes and conscript soldiers from peasant families
Rural violence
Captain Swing, southern England (1820s)
Insurrections against landlords, taxes, and laws curtailing customary rights
Russian serf uprisings as a result of bad harvests and exploitation
Governments seemed incapable of dealing with rural discontent
The urban landscape
Growth of cities
Urbanization moved from northwest Europe to the southeast
London's population grew from 676,000 (1750) to 2.3 million (1850), that of Paris from 560,000 to 1.3 million
Overcrowding and poor sanitation
Construction of housing lagged well behind population growth
Governments passed some legislation to rid cities of slums
Industry and environment in the nineteenth century
Air pollution
Water pollution
Fertile breeding grounds for cholera, typhus, and tuberculosis
Sex in the city
Prostitution
Seen as one of the dangers and corruptions of urban life
The problems of the cities posed dangers that were not just social but political
Social surveys and studies
Critics of the urban scene
Victor Hugo (1802-1885)
Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850)
The Middle Classes
Balzac as observer
The French and Industrial Revolutions had replaced one aristocracy with another
From rank, status, and privilege to wealth and social class
Who were the middle classes?
Not a homogeneous group in terms of income or occupation
Upward mobility impossible without education
Easier in Britain than on the Continent
The examination system
"Getting ahead"
Intelligence, pluck (luck), and hard work
Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859)
Respectability
A code of behavior
Financial independence
Providing for family
Avoiding gambling and debt
Merit and character
Hard work
Live modestly and soberly
Aspirations and codes not social realities
Private life and middle-class identity
The family
A well-governed household served as an antidote to the confusion of the business world
Gender and the cult of domesticity
The respectable home
Rituals, hierarchies, and distinctions
The "separate sphere"
Women were supposed to live in subordination to men
Boys educated in secondary schools, girls educated at home
The idea of legal inequality between men and women
Middle-class identityneither aristocratic nor working-class values
The "angel in the house"
Middle-class women to be free from unrelenting toil
The moral education of children
The "cult of domesticity"
Central to middle-class Victorian thinking about women
The reassessment of femininity
Keeping the household functioning smoothly and harmoniously
The servant as the mark of middle-class status
Outside the home
Few options to earn a living
Voluntary societies and campaigns for social reform
Protestantism and charity
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
Queen Victoria (r. 1837-1901)
Reflected contemporary feminine virtues of moral probity and dutiful domesticity
Successful queen because she embodied middle-class virtues
"Passionlessness": gender and sexuality
Victorian sexuality usually seen as synonymous with anxiety, prudishness, and ignorance
Beliefs about sexuality came from convictions about separate spheres
Scientists taught that specific characteristics were inherent to each sex
Men and woman had different roles
Auguste Comte and "biological philosophy"
Women's moral superiority embodied in their "passionlessness"
Absence of reliable contraceptives
Middle-class life in public
Houses and furnishings as symbols of material prosperity
Solidly built and heavily decorated
Homes were built to last
Rooms crowded with furniture, art, carpets, and wall hangings
Suburban life
Moved to the west side of cities
Lived away from the city but managed the affairs of their city
Leisure
Working-Class Life
General observations
Working classes divided into several subgroups
Based on skill, wages, gender, and workplace
Some movement from unskilled to skilled (required children with education)
Movement from skilled to unskilled due to technological change
Housing was unhealthy and unregulated
The daily round of life for the working-class wife
Working-class women in the industrial landscape
Problems observed
Promiscuous mixing in workshops
Children left unattended
Industrial accidents
Women laboring alongside men
Women's work not new industrialization made it more visible
Women workers were paid less and were less troublesome
Most began to work at age ten or eleven
They put their children out to wet nurses or brought them to the mills
Gender division of labor
Most women labored at home or in small workshops ("sweatshops")
Domestic service
Less visible
Low wages
Coercive sexual relationships
Working-class sexuality
Different from middle-class counterpart
Increase in illegitimate births
Weaker family ties
The collapse of the family?
A life apart: class consciousness
The factory created common experiences and difficulties
Denied skilled laborers pride in their crafts
Guild protections abolished
Decline of apprenticeship
The factory
Long hours under dirty and dangerous conditions
The imposition of new routines and discipline
The factory whistle
The pace of the machine
The division of labor into specialized steps
Machinery as the new tyrant
Working-class vulnerability
Unemployment, sickness, accidents, and family problems
The varying price of food
Seasonal unemployment
Markets for manufactured goods were small and unstable
Cyclical economic depressions
Severe agricultural depressions
Working-class survival
Families worked several small jobs
Pawned possessions
Joined self-help societies and fraternal associations
Early socialist movement
Social segregation of the city
Implied that working people lived a life apart from others
Class differences embedded in experience and beliefs
Conclusion
The Industrial Revolution as major turning point in the history of the world
The global balance of power
Technology as progress
The new wealth and the new poverty
Social identities and class consciousnes