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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 14
Religion, Warfare, and Sovereignty: 1540-1660
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
The primacy of religion
Religion and politics
Religious wars
Economic, Religious, and Political Tests
The Price Revolution
Dizzying inflation
Causes
Rising population: 50 to 90 million (1450-1600)
Food supplies remained constant
Influx of New World silver
Effects
Large-scale farmers, landlords, and some merchants profited
For laborers, wages rose more slowly than prices
The rich got richer, the poor got poorer
Governments responded by raising taxes
Religious conflicts
The inevitability of religious wars
The mutual support of "crown and altar"
State-imposed religious authority
The impossibility of religious pluralism
Political instability
General weakness of major European kingdoms
Dynasticism
Constant threat of civil wars (and foreign wars)
A Century of Religious Wars
The German wars of religion (c. 1540-1555)
Charles V
Attempts to reestablish Catholic unity failed
Catholic princes feared Charles would curb their independence
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
Cuius regio, eius religio (as the ruler, so the religion)
Catholic princes rule Catholic territories
Protestant princes rule Protestant territories
The French wars of religion (1562-1598)
By 1562, Calvinists comprised 10 to 20 percent of the population of France
Conversion of aristocratic women
Won over their husbands, who usually controlled large private armies
Condé as leader of the Huguenots
1562: struggle between Condé and the ultra-Catholic duke of Guise
A political and religious struggle
Warfare dragged on until 1572
Henry of Navarre (Protestant) to marry the Catholic sister of the king
Catherine de Medici panicked
Plotted with Catholic Guise faction to kill all Huguenot leaders
Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (August 24, 1572)
Two to three thousand Parisian Protestants slaughtered (ten thousand more across France)
Henry IV (r. 1589-1610)
Initiated the Bourbon dynasty
1598: the Edict of Nantes
Catholicism established as the official religion
Huguenots allowed to worship, attend universities, and serve as public officials
Divided France into religious "spheres of influence"
The revolt of the Netherlands (1566-1609)
Southern Netherlandsgrew prosperous from trade and manufacture
1556: Charles V ceded all territories to his son, Philip
Philip II (r. 1556-1598)
Used the Netherlands as a source of income to pursue Spanish affairs
French Calvinists spread to Antwerp, converting others along the way
William the Silent
Leader of the Catholic nobility
Appealed to Philip to allow toleration for Calvinists
Radical Protestant mobs ransacked Catholic churches
Philip dispatched an army under the duke of Alva
The Council of Blood (reign of terror)
The 1609 truce
Implicit recognition of the northern Dutch Republic
England and the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1618-1648)
Sources of antagonism
The English under Elizabeth
English economic interests opposed to Spanish interests
England determined to resist any Spanish attempt to block England's trade with the Low Countries
Naval contests in the Atlantic
The "Invincible Armada"
English naval victorySpanish defeat
Protestant enthusiasm
"Good Queen Bess"
The Elizabethan Age
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
Began as a war between Catholics and Protestants
Ended as an international struggle transcending religion
Causes
Religious conflict
Ferdinand (Catholic Habsburg) elected king of Protestant Bohemia
Protestantism suppressed in Bohemia
Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632)
Lutheran king of Sweden
Marched into Germany (1630), championed the Protestants
Earned the support of Catholic princes
Wished to see religious balance restored
Did not want to submit to Ferdinand II
Subsidized by France
1632: Adolphus killed in battle
1635-1648: war pits France and Sweden against Austria and Spain
The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Marked the emergence of France as a predominant continental power
The Germans and Austrian Habsburgs as greatest losers
Divergent Paths: Spain, France, and England, 1600-1660
The decline of Spain
By 1600, the Spanish empire was the mightiest European and global power
Primary weakness was economy
Lacked agricultural and mineral resources
Needed to develop industries and a balanced trading pattern
The nobility lived in splendor and dedicated itself to military exploits
Huge military expenditure
The question of Castile
A dominant power after taking over Portugal (1580)
The revolt in Catalunya (1640)
Italian revolts
Spain abandoned its ambition of dominating Europe
The growing power of France
Adding territories (Languedoc, Dauphiné, Provence, Burgundy, and Brittany)
Henry IV set out to restore the prosperity of France
Manual for proper farming technique
Rebuilt roads, bridges, and canals
Constructed royal factories
The exploration of Canada
Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)
Major goals
Enhance central power at home
Expand French influence across Europe
1629: deprived Huguenots of all political and military rights
Abolished the semiautonomy of Burgundy, Dauphiné, and Provence
Introduced a new system of local government by the "intendants"
The Fronde (1648-1653)
A reaction against French governmental centralization
"The slingshot tumults" (Fronde)
Louis XIV, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin
Popular and aristocratic resentments reached boiling point
Aristocrats joined commoners against the corruption and mismanagement of Mazarin
Louis implemented new taxation
The absolutism of Louis XIV
The English Civil War
General causes
Constitutional hostilities
Religious animosities
Power struggles between competing aristocratic factions at court
Outdated fiscal system
Rebellion in Ireland
Widespread crop failures
The origins of the English Civil War
James I (r. 1603-1625)
A Scottish king disliked by the English
The prerogatives of kingship
Raised taxes without parliamentary approval
The Puritans
James planted eight thousand Scottish Calvinists in Ulster
Charles I (r. 1625-1649)
Launched a new war with Spain
Further financial problems
Married the Catholic daughter of Louis XIII of France
With William Laud, began to favor anti-Calvinist elements in the English church
1640: a Scottish army marched into England demanding the withdrawal of Charles's religious reforms
Charles summoned Parliament
1628: Parliament forced Charles to accept the Petition of Right
Declared all taxes not voted by Parliament to be illegal
Condemned quartering of soldiers in private homes
Prohibited arbitrary imprisonment and martial law in times of peace
Charles ruled without Parliament
1642: Charles tried to arrest five leaders in the House of Commons
Charles raised his own army
Parliament voted itself taxation to fight Charles and his army
Civil war and Commonwealth
King's supporters ("Cavaliers")
Aristocrats and large landowners
Loyal to the Church of England
Parliamentary supporters ("Roundheads")
Small landholders, tradesmen, and artisans
Most were Puritans
Quarrel within the parliamentary party
Most were ready to restore Charles as a limited monarch
A radical minority of Puritans ("Independents") distrusted Charles
Insisted on religious tolerance
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)
Charles renewed the war (1648) but was forced to surrender
The Rump Parliament
Charles beheaded (January 30, 1649)
The Commonwealth (Republic)
1653: Cromwell marched troops into Parliament
The Protectoratethinly disguised autocracy
The Instrument of Government
Cromwell as lord protector
The restoration of the monarchy
The Puritans had been discredited
Charles II (r. 1660-1685)
Agreed to respect Parliament
Agreed to observe the Petition of Right
Agreed to summon Parliament every three years
The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty
From certainty to doubt
The New World
The destruction of religious uniformity
Political allegiances were threatened
The search for new foundations
Witchcraft accusations and the power of the state
The mortal threat of witchcraft
1494: Pope Innocent VIII ordered papal inquisitors to detect and eliminate witchcraft
Torture increased the number of accused witches who confessed to alleged crimes
Witchcraft trials were European phenomenanot confined to Catholic countries
Fear of witchcraft most intense where secular and religious powers were close
1660 and after: witchcraft accusations died down
Conclusions
Witch mania reflected the fears Europeans held about the devil
Reflected the growing conviction that only the state had the power to protect people
The search for authority
Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)
A searching skepticism
The Essays (essaitrial, experiment)
Que sais je? (what do I know?)very little for certain
What is true to one nation may be false to another
Moderationno government or religion is really perfect; no belief is worth fighting for
Helped combat fanaticism and religious intolerance
Jean Bodin (1530-1596)
Looked to resolve the disorder of his own day
Six Books of the Commonwealth (1576)
Absolute governmental sovereignty
Once a state is constituted it should brook no opposition
Nation-states can in no way be limited governments
Resistance to the state leads to anarchy
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
The doctrine of political absolutism
Leviathan (1651)
Any form of government that protects subject and property might act as sovereign
The state exists to rule over atomistic individuals
Pessimistic view of human nature
The sovereign can tyrannize as he likes
A new science of politics
Political obligation grounded in empirical observation, not tradition or divine right
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
Began as a mathematician and scientific rationalist
Abandoned science as a result of a conversion experience
Became a Jansenist (puritanical faction within Catholicism)
Pensées (Thoughts)
Faith alone can show the way to salvation
Terror, anguish, and awe in the face of evil and eternity
Literature and the Arts
Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)
Don Quixote
The knight-errant (Quixote) and the practical man (Sancho Panza)
Human natureidealism and realism
Elizabethan and Jacobean drama
Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)
Tamburlaine and Doctor Faustus
Larger-than-life heroes
His heroes meet unhappy ends because there are limits to human striving
Ben Jonson (c. 1572-1637)
Wrote corrosive comedies exposing human vice and foibles
Volpone
Shows people behaving like deceitful and lustful animals
Alchemist
An attack on quackery and gullibility
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
His reputation as an author
Forty plays, 150 sonnets, and two long narrative poems
The gift of expression and profound analysis of human character
First period
The world is orderly and just
Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Twelfth Night, As You Like It, and Much Ado About Nothing
Second period
Bitterness, pathos, and the search for the meaning of existence
Hamlet, Measure for Measure, All's Well That Ends Well, Macbeth, and King Lear
Third period
The spirit of reconciliation and peace
The Tempest
John Milton (1608-1674)
Wrote the official defense of Charles I's beheading
Justified Puritan positions in contemporary affairs
Loved the Greek and Roman classics (Lycidas)
Paradise Lost
Epic poem based on Genesis
The creation and the fall of man
Created the character of Satan
Mannerism
Italian and Spanish painting, 1540-1600
Fascinated the viewer with special effects
A blending of two styles
Raphael
Pontormo (1494-1557) and Bronzino (1503-1572)
Bordering on the bizarre and surreal
Michelangelo
Tintoretto (1518-1594) large canvases devoted to religious subjects
El Greco (c. 1541-1614)a deeply mystical Catholic art
Baroque art and architecture
A school of painting, sculpture, and architecture
Retained the dramatic and irregular
Avoided the bizarre
Aimed to instill a sense of the affirmative
Originated in Rome
Expressed the ideals of the Counter- Reformation papacy and the Jesuits
Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)
Architect and sculptor
Combined classical elements to express aggressive relentlessness and great power
Experimented with church facades built "in depth"
Incited response rather than passive observation
Diego Velázquez (1599-1660)
Southern European Baroque
Court painter in Madrid
More restrained thoughtfulness
The Maids of Honor
Dutch painting in the "golden age"
The greatness and wretchedness of man
Peter Brueghel (c. 1525-1569)
Portrayed the busy life of the peasantry
Peasant Wedding, Peasant Wedding Dance, and Harvesters
Appalled by the intolerance he witnessed during Calvinist riots and Spanish repression in the Netherlands
The Blind Leading the Blind
Massacre of the Innocents
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
Painted thousands of canvases glorifying resurgent Catholicism
Reveled in the sumptuous extravagance of the Baroque
The Horrors of War
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)
Lived in staunchly Calvinist Holland
An active portrait painter who knew how to flatter his subjects
A life of personal tragedy
Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer and The Polish Rider
Conclusion
Undermined confidence in traditional social, religious, and political structures
Skepticism and the search for meaning
The new power of the state