W.W. Norton & Company
Skip to content
Colorblind Mode:
On
|
Off
W. W. NORTON HOME
|
HELP
|
CREDITS
Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
Chapters
Online Reader
Western Civilizations Tours
Glossary
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
Quiz Result
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
In This Chapter
Study Plan
Author Insights Podcasts
Chapter Summary
Chapter Study Outline
Ebook
Quiz+
iMaps & GeoQuiz
Map Worksheets
Review Questions
Flashcards
Chrono-Sequencer
Interpreting the Visual Evidence
Documents
Images
Research Topics
Chapter 13
The Age Of Dissent And Division, 1500-1600
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
General considerationsEurope in 1500
Population growth, an expanding economy, and increased urbanization
National monarchies created in England, France, Spain, and Poland
Resumption of commercial and colonial expansion
Suppression of heresy
Popular devotion had increased
The Lutheran Upheaval
Explaining the success of Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Peasants hoped Lutheranism would free them from the exactions of their lords
Towns and princes were trying to consolidate their political independence
Nationalist demands for liberation from foreign popes
From reforming the Church to a frontal assault on the Church
Luther's quest for religious certainty
Luther and his father
Sent to the University of Erfurt to study law
1505: Luther enters an Augustinian monastery
1513: Conversion experiencethe quest for spiritual peace
The problem of the justice of God
How could God issue commands man could not obey?
Eternal damnation as punishment
The "tower experience"
Meditated on the Psalms ("deliver me in thy justice")
God's power lay in his mercy to save sinful mortals through faith
Paul's Letter to the Romans (1:17) "the just shall live by faith"
God's justice does not depend on "good works" and religious ceremonies
Humans are saved by grace alone ("justification by faith alone")
Piety and charity as visible signs of the faithful
Salvation and the Church
The Church (sacraments) and the believer (piety and charity) could affect salvation
The Church "quantified" the process of salvation
The "Treasury of Merits"
The indulgence
Remission of the penitential obligations imposed by priests
Indulgences earned by demanding spiritual exercises (eleventh and twelfth centuries)
Indulgences granted with a monetary payment
Indulgences seen by many as just another form of simony (selling grace in return for cash)
"Here I stand; God help me, I can do no other."
The Reformation begins
Albert of Hohenzolern
Debt and simony
The bargain with Pope Leo X
Granted Albert an indulgence
Half the money went to build Saint Peter's Basilica at Rome
Half the money went to Albert
Johann Tetzel
Hawked indulgences in northern Germany with Fugger support
Sold indulgences as "tickets to heaven"
October 31, 1517: Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
Written in Latin, intended for academic dispute
Translated and published in German
1519: public disputation in Leipzig
Luther maintained that the pope and all clerics were merely fallible men
The highest authority for an individual's conscience was the truth of Scripture
Pope Leo charged Luther with heresy
Luther's pamphlets of 1520general ideas
Justification by faith alone
The primacy of Scripture
The literal meaning of Scripture takes precedence over Church traditions
The "priesthood of all believers"
All Christian believers are spiritually equal before God
General consequences
Good works do not lead to salvation
Fasts, pilgrimages, and the veneration of relics were valueless
The dissolution of all monasteries and convents
Proposed substituting German for Latin in church services
Reduced the number of sacraments from seven to two (baptism and the Eucharist)
Denied that the Mass was a repetition of Christ's sacrifice on the cross
Proposed the abolition of the entire ecclesiastical hierarchy of popes and bishops
The break with Rome
The role of the printing press in spreading Luther's message
Luther's defiance touched off a national religious revolt against the papacy
Popes bribed the cardinals to gain the papacy
Moral corruption
Popes waged war to gain territory
There were no agreements (concordats) between pope and German emperor
Princes complained that taxes were too high
Many German princes sided with Luther as a way to attack Roman influence and corruption
The Diet of Worms (1521)
Luther handed over to Elector Frederick the Wise for punishment as a heretic
Frederick convened a Diet (formal assembly) to give Luther a fair hearing
Initiative lay with presiding officer, Charles V (Holy Roman emperor)
Would not tolerate attacks on the Church or the emperor
Luther kidnapped by Frederick and brought to the castle of the Wartburg
Edict of Worms declared Luther an outlaw (never enforced)
The German princes and the Lutheran Reformation
The new religion prevailed in areas where princes formally established Lutheranism
Rulers sought to control appointments to Church offices and restrict flow of money to Rome
1487: Innocent VIII consented to the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition
1516: Concordat of Bologna French king to choose bishops and abbots
The consolidation of the authority of the German princes
Free cities adopted Lutheranism in order to establish supreme governing authority
Luther and temporal authority
1523: On Temporal Authority God must be obeyed in all things
1525: Against the Thievish, Murderous Hordes of Peasants
The Spread of Protestantism
German Imperial Diet (1529) originated the term Protestant
The Reformation in Switzerland
The independence of prosperous Swiss cities
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Theologically moderate form of Lutheranism
Catholic theology and practice conflicted with the Gospels
Condemned religious images and hierarchical authority
The Eucharist was a reminder of Christ's sacrifice, not the real presence of Christ's body (Luther)
Prevented Lutherans and Zwinglians from joining forces in a united front
Anabaptism
Radical Protestant sect
Convinced that baptism was effective only if administered to willing adults
Men and women are not born into any church
Feared by both Catholics and Protestants
Münster (1534)
Sectarianism and millenarianism
The New Jerusalem
John of Leyden
Obligatory religious practices, private property abolished, polygamy permitted
Anabaptists persecuted across Europe
Menno Simons (c. 1496- 1561) and the Mennonite sect
John Calvin's reformed theology
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Born near Paris, studied law, became a humanist
Institutes of the Christian Religion
The omnipotence of God
Man is sinful by nature
Predestination and the elect
An active life of piety and morality
Calvin and church government
Rejected popery outright
Eliminated all traces of hierarchy
Congregational election of ministers and assemblies of ministers and electors
"Four bare walls and a sermon"
Calvinism in Geneva
Calvin began preaching in 1536, expelled in 1538, returned in 1541
Calvinist theocracy
The Consistorytwelve lay elders, ten to twenty pastors
The supervision of morality
Spread of Calvinism
John Knox (c. 1513-1572) brought Calvinism to Scotland (Presbyterians)
The Dutch Reformed Church
French Huguenots
English Puritans
The Domestication of the Reformation, 1525-1560
Reform and discipline
The problem of enforcing discipline
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498)
Campaign of moral reform in Florence (1494-1498)
Protestant rulers and godly discipline
The depravity of human naturepeople must be compelled to be good
Luther and the education of children
Catechisms to teach children the tenets of their faith
All children to read the Bible in the vernacular
Protestant family as a "school of godliness"
Methods of discipline
Counseling, public confession, public penance, exclusion, imprisonment all met with moderate success
The necessity of godly authority in church and state
Protestantism, government, and the family
Protestant attacks on monasticism and clerical celibacy
Resented immunity of monastic houses from taxation
Guilds and town governments also interested in increasing control by town elites
Reinforced individual craftsmen's control over their households
New religious ideals for women
The married and obedient Protestant "goodwife"
Resolving the tension between piety and sexuality
Reinforcement of male and female roles
Shut down convents
Property handed over to the town
Protestantism and control over marriage
Increased parental control over children
Parents wanted the power to prevent unsuitable matches
Luther declares marriage to be a secular matter only
The English Reformation
Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) and the break with Rome
1527: Henry sought a divorce from Catherine of Aragon in order to marry Anne Boleyn
Appealed to Rome for an annulment of his marriage
If the pope agreed, doubt would be cast on the validity of all papal dispensations
It would also provoke the wrath of Charles V, Catherine's nephew
1531: Henry declared himself to be "protector and only supreme head" of the church in England
1534: the Act of Supremacy
Consequences
Pilgrimages and relics were prohibited
English church remained Catholic in organization, doctrine, ritual, and language
1539: the Six Articles of the faith
Edward VI (r. 1547-1553)
Came to the throne at nine years of age
Altered ceremonies of the English church
Priests were permitted to marry
English was substituted for Latin
The veneration of images was abolished
New articles of faith were drawn up repudiating all sacraments except baptism and communion
Justification by faith alone
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) and the restoration of Catholicism
Reversed Edward's religious policies
Many were burned at the stake for refusing to give up Protestantism
Asked Parliament to vote a return to papal allegiance
"Bloody Mary"
The Elizabethan religious settlement
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)
Daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn
The new Act of Supremacy (1559)
Repealed Mary's Catholic legislation
Prohibited foreign powers from exercising authority within England
Declared herself "supreme governor" of the English church
Retained some Catholic vestiges
1562: the Thirty-Nine Articles of Faith
Protestantism and English nationalism: God has chosen England for greatness
Catholicism Transformed
The Catholic Reformation
First phase (c. 1490s)
A movement for moral and institutional reform within the religious orders
Papacy showed little interest in this movement
Influence of northern humanists (Erasmus and More)
Encouraged the laity to lead lives of simple but sincere religious piety
Second phase (c. 1530s)
More aggressive phase of reform
New style of papal leadership
Excessive holiness
Accomplished administrators
Reorganized papal finances
Third phase: the Council of Trent (1545-1563)
Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine
Good works declared necessary for salvation
The seven sacraments
Papal supremacy
Bishops and priests were forbidden to hold more than one spiritual office
Establishment of theological seminaries
Established the Index of Forbidden Books (1564)
Saint Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
Spanish nobleman wounded in battle (1521) became a spiritual solider of Christ
Ecstatic visions
The Spiritual Exercises
Practical advice on how to master the will
A program of meditations on sin and the life of Christ
The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded at Paris in 1534
Formally constituted as a holy order by Pope Paul III (1540)
A company of soldiers sworn to defend the faith
Eloquence, persuasion, and instruction
The suppression of individuality
Proselytized Christians and non-Christians alike
Established schools
Became an international movement
Counter-Reformation Christianity
Defended and revitalized the faith
Spread literacy and intense concern for acts of charity
New importance given to religious women
Saint Teresa of Avila (1515-1582)
The Ursulines and the Sisters of Charity
Conclusion: The Heritage of the Protestant Reformation
The Reformation and the Renaissance
Christian humanist influences
Exposed abuses
Close textual study of the Bible
Luther and Erasmus
Erasmus had no sympathy with Lutheran principles
Most humanists believed in free will and that human nature was somehow good
Consequences
Increasing power of Europe's sovereign states
The growth of German cultural nationalism
Protestantism and the role of women