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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 8
The Expansion Of Europe, 950-1100
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
Europe in 1000
Shifting balance of power
A weakened Europe and the strength of Byzantine and Islamic civilization
Viking, Hungarian, and Muslim attacks
Europe in 1100
Europe emerging as dominant military, economic, and political power
A Catholic European world
Expansion of European commerce
Urbanization
Economic growth
More powerful governments
Social stratification
The Medieval Agricultural Revolution
Transformations
Technological innovation
Improved climate
New crop-rotation system
Investment in tools, livestock, and mills
Technological advances
Heavy-wheeled plow, horse collars, and harnesses
Better aeration of the soil
Saved labor
Iron horseshoes, the tandem harness, and iron hand tools
Mills
After 1050, a craze in northern European water mills
Windmills introduced in the 1170s
Results
Greater security as Viking, Hungarian, and Muslim attacks decreased
Growing confidence of entrepreneurial peasants and lords
A new profit motive?
Increased European population
Efficient market for goods
Manorialism, serfdom, and agricultural productivity
Changes in patterns of peasant settlement (England, northern Europe, and western Germany)
The development of the manor
Consolidation of individual peasant holdings
The lord of the manor
Dominant role
claimed largest share of peasants' production
Strip farming
Peasant labor services
The peasants
Similar to slaves: worked without pay, paid humiliating fines
Unlike slaves: their obligations were fixed by custom
New crop-rotation systems
Three-field system of crop rotation
Adaptable to wet, fertile soils of northern Europe
Produced higher yields and was insurance against disaster
New types of food (for humans and horses)
Helped spread labor more evenly over the course of the year
Serfdom and the limits of manorialism
Manorialism never predominant across Europe at any one time
Mostly limited to England and parts of France and Germany
The Growth of Towns and Commerce
Agricultural revolution served as foundation for a new commercial revolution
Commerce
By the twelfth century, trade controlled by Venetian, Pisan, and Genoese naval forces
Created an expanding market for Eastern luxury goods
Dominance of Italian trade networks (Constantinople, Alexandria, and the West)
The Champagne fairs
Flemish merchants sold cloth to Italians
Italian merchants sold Eastern spices and silks to the Flemish
Long-distance trade
A risky enterprise
Piracy
Italian merchants develop new commercial methods
Partnership contracts
Double-entry bookkeeping
New credit mechanisms
Commerce and urbanization
Towns
Symbiotic relationship with the countryside
Provided markets for manufactured goods
Specialization in certain enterprises
Paris and Bologna: university towns
Venice, Genoa, Cologne, and London: long-distance trade
Milan, Florence, Ghent, and Bruges: manufactures
Violence and Lordship
New wealth fostered both social mobility and social stratification
Families begin to establish themselves as territorial lords
Protected territories and followers by building castles
Castles begin to dominate the landscape
Serve defensive and offensive role
Dominate the landscape
New lords claim descent from successful Vikings; break from Roman past
Need assistance of warriors to defend their claims of power
Knighthood
A new social order of men of widely varying social rank
A specialized warrior group associated with the nobility
Europe becomes a continent of faux "kingdoms"
Political and military power was in the hand of wealthy landholders
Centralized Europe's growing wealth for themselves
These medieval lords exercised enormous power over property rights, coinage, law, military, and taxation
The problem of feudalism
Feudalism as a highly decentralized political system
Varieties of interpretation
Marxist historiography
Social historians
Legal historians
Military historians
Feudalism defined
A political system in which public powers were exercised by private lords
First took shape in tenth- and eleventh-century France
Justified a hierarchical legal and political order
Vocabulary
Fief: a contract in which something of value was exchanged for service
Vassal: recipient of a fief
Homage: a solemn act in which a vassal becomes "the man" of his lord
Personal relationships of service in return for landholding
A New Feudal Monarchy: England
In 1066 Duke William of Normandy claims to be successor of English king
English people elected Harold king
William defeated Harold at battle of Hastings and took power
William had to subjugate all others who claimed kingship
Asserted kingship by both conquest and imperial succession
Claimed all land of England belonged to him
William rewarded his Norman followers with fiefs taken from English landholders
William received their loyalty and share of their revenues
William exercised many important powers of the state:
Coined money
Collected national land tax
Supervised royal courts
Had right to raise an army
Maintained Anglo-Saxon sheriffs to administer local law
William's exercise of these national powers enabled him to insist on people's loyalty
Struggle for Imperial Power in Germany
No German king could claim rule over large tracts of land
Imperial authority of any ruler bolstered by alliance with the Church
Emperor relied heavily on the Church leadership
In 1056 Henry IV succeeds his father as emperor (six years old). Competition among his advisers leads to broader conflict
German princes attempted to take power from Henry's regents
Hostilities escalated into civil war
New Pope Gregory VII begins to insist no laymen can have influence on the Church; this position would impact Henry's ability to appoint bishops
Gregory allied himself with Henry's enemies and attempted to depose him
Henry was forced to beg the pope for forgiveness and recognize his authority
Religious Reform and Papal Power
Power of the papacy begins to grow in the eleventh century
Independence of local churches had been compromised
Bishops had been co-opted by powerful families
Many popes drastically abused their power and undermined the influence of the papacy
Monastic reform movement
Cluny establishes new type of monastery in Burgundy
Placed monastery under direct protection of the papacy
Recruited wealthy benefactor who sought no control over the monastery
Family gained special spiritual privileges for its generosity
Cluny sponsored the development of several monasteries on this model
All of the monasteries Cluny developed were attached to a mother house; they were not independent. All engaged in same religious rituals
Monastic reforms took place in Germany and England as well with the knowledge of the Christian king
Kings followed Cluny's example; they insisted on poverty, chastity, and obedience and followed same liturgical rights
Cluny's monasteries were more independent; in England and Germany kings appointed the abbots
Provides the foundation for close relationship between church and state in England
Monasticism became the dominant force in Western Christianity
Monasteries had an enormous impact on the piety of the people
Many monasteries maintained parishes that served the spiritual needs of the people
Many monasteries housed relics that were thought to possess protective and curative powers
These relics were collected and displayed at monasteries
Became a way for monasteries to attract attention and generate revenue
Reform of the Papacy
Reform movements in the monasteries begin to have effect on the bishops
Bishops and priests serving in the diocese were secular clergy living similar lives as their parishioners
Abbots often appointed to episcopal office; brought monastic values and beliefs with them
Nonmonastic bishops required to adopt stricter standards of conduct
Influence of these newly empowered bishops grow, reform agenda expands
Attack simony; use ecclesiastical office for personal gain
Movement targeted the structure of the Church
Demand that secular clergy share lifestyle of monkspoverty, chastity, and obedience
Monks and priests developed different priestly lives as a result of different liturgical tasks
Poverty, chastity, and obedience more practical for cloistered monk
Demands of priestly celibacy are unreasonabledeprive parishioners of ministry of the wife
In 1046 Leo IX becomes pope
Issued decrees against simony and clerical marriage
Traveled throughout Continent to ensure reforms being carried out
Vision of the Church as a feudal monarchy
Limit the authority of other office holders in the Church
Met serious opposition from within the Church; needed the support of local rulers
Henry III insulated the pope from local Roman nobility
Henry IV, his heir, was not as supportive; attempted to install his own pope
New pope, Nicholas II, created college of cardinals as policy advisers and as overseers of papal elections
Investiture Conflict
Gregory VII elected pope in 1073; initially has good relations with Henry IV in Germany
Conflict in 1075 between Gregory and Henry over right to appoint bishops
Henry wanted the political benefit of appointing bishops; for Gregory it was simony
Gregory's reform movement sought to both liberate Church from worldly control and power and expand its power
Gregory understood this to be not just a policy matter but a matter of "church dogma"
Henry refused to accept Gregory's authority and appointed archbishop of Milan
Gregory excommunicated several of his advisers
Henry renounced Gregory; Gregory excommunicated Henry
Gregory attached deposition from throne with excommunication
Gregory attempted to overthrow Henry; Gregory ultimately exiled by Henry
Results in Concordat of Worms whereby emperors forbidden from investing prelates with religious symbols of office; allowed to give them temporal authority
Crusading Causes and Outcomes
Abbasid decline
Muslim pressure on the eastern borders of the empire
The Byzantine Revival
A changed position
Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius convert Balkan Slavs to Orthodox Christianity
A new written languageOld Church Slavonic (Cyrillic alphabet)
Annexation of Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia
Military and commercial alliance with the western Rus
Eastern conquests (930s and 970s)
Greatly increased power of local noble families
New centers of power outside Constantinople
Tensions and rivalries
The invasion of the Turks
Venice, Pisa, and Genoa emerge as dominant traders in the eastern Mediterranean
Growing power of Fatimid Egypt
The Seljuk Turks move into Asia Minor
Battle of Manzikert (1071)
The Turks now set to seize all of Anatolia
Alexius Comnenus (1048-1118)
Appeals to Pope Urban II for troops to repel the Turks
The First Crusade
Pope Urban's appeal
Bring the Orthodox Church into communion with the papacy
Embarrass the German emperor, Henry IV
Achieving peace at home
Goal of Jerusalem
1095calls the First Crusade at Clermont
One hundred thousand men, women, and children march to Constantinople
Motives
Win new lands
Prospect of adventure
Religiousa mission from God
Pilgrimage
Freed from punishment in purgatory
Plenary indulgences
Assaults against Jewish communities (Mainz, Worms, Speyer, and Cologne)
Byzantium seen as an obstacle to recovery of Jerusalem for Christianity
Crusaders capture Antioch and most of Syria (1098)
Crusaders take Jerusalem, slaughtering its inhabitants (1099)
Furthered the decline of Byzantine commerce
The later Crusades
Crusaders did not wish to interfere with trade routes
For the Muslims, the loss of Jerusalem was a religious affront
The Second Crusade
Syrian principalities recaptured by the Muslims
Christian warriors suffered crushing defeats
Muslim leader Saladin recaptures Jerusalem (1187)
The Third Crusade
Frederick Barbarossa (c. 1123-1190)
Philip Augustus (1165-1223)
Richard the Lionhearted (1157-1199)
A failed campaign
The Fourth Crusade
Summoned by Innocent III
A disaster for the crusading armies
Civil war in Germany
War between England and France
Depleted ranks of crusading armies
The consequences of the Crusades
Disaster for Byzantium
Modest effect on the Islamic world
Trade between Islam and the West continued
The West learned new technologies of fortification
The Muslims learned about siege warfare
The crystallization of Christian and Islamic doctrines of the holy war against the infidel
Western Europe
Difficult to assess
Western expansionism
Could not maintain colonies
Greatest gains went to the republics of Venice and Genoa
"Cutting out the Islamic middle man"
The crusading ideal
Islamic Culture and Christian Europe
Number of positive outcomes from interaction between Latin West and Islamic world
Interaction with Muslims has significant impact on European learning, literature, music, and art
Transformation in Christian theology
Averroes Ibn Rushd advanced study of Aristotelian logic
Islamic world significantly advanced in medicine and science
Confirmed Hellenic findings that earth revolves around sun
Discovered contagious nature of TB, noted that disease could be spread through contaminated water and soil
Avicenna wrote Canons of Medicine; seminal text for years
Significant developments in math; develop decimal arithmetic; develop accounting systems on which trade and commerce are based
Islamic Literature and Art
Great significance of poetry in Islamic arts
Most significant accomplishments in arts and architecture