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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 7
Rome's Three Heirs, 500-950
Chapter Study Outline
Justinian's Imperial Ambitions
Responsible for the political division of Rome
Believed he was heir of the Principate established by Augustus
Codified Roman law
Law had become self-contradictory
Brought existing precedent into line with present circumstances
Compiles the Corpus Juris Civilis
Influenced legal system of many nations
Dissolution of Roman Empire into Rome, Byzantium, and North Africa
The Byzantine Empire
A successor to the Roman state
Justinian and Heraclius
Threats and challenges
The Persians
Theft of the relic of the original cross
Heraclius routs the Persians (627)
Islam
By 650, Arabs had taken back most of the Byzantine territory that was formerly Persian
Jerusalem in the hands of the Muslims
Constantinople threatened (677)
Pope Leo the Isaurian defeats Arabs on land and at sea (717)
Seljuk Turks
Battle of Manzikert (1071)
The fall of Byzantine civilization (1453)
Sources of stability
Why did Constantinople survive?
Internal political history, the story of violence and palace revolts
Efficient bureaucratic practices
Education
Religion
Economic activity
Entertainment
The army and navy f . Sound economic base
Role of Constantinople as trade emporium
Stable gold and silver coinage
Agriculture
Byzantine religion
Religious orthodoxy
Emperors involved in intense religious debates
The Iconoclastic Controversy
The Iconoclasts prohibited the veneration of icons, considering them "graven images"
Others argued that icons served as windows through which a glimpse of heaven might be granted
Political and financial considerations
The monasteries rallied behind the cause of images
Resolved in the ninth centurya return to the veneration of icons
Consequences
Much religious art destroyed as a result of the Controversy
Opened a serious breach between East and West
Led to renewed emphasis on Orthodox faith as key to political unity
Fear of heresy inhibited speculation
Byzantine culture
Preserved ancient Greek heritage
The role of Homer: a model, textbook, and guide to morality
Greek thought
Revered Plato and Thucydides
Aristotle regarded with less interest
Neglected Greek scientific and mathematical tradition
Preservation rather than innovation the hallmark of Byzantine classicism
Education extended to both men and women
Princess Anna Comnena (1083-1148)
Art and architecture
Church of Santa Sophia (Holy Wisdom)
Symbol for the inward and spiritual character of Christianity
Exterior was plain, interior filled with mosaics, gold leaf, marble columns
Architectural uniqueness
The Growth of Islam
The rise of Islam
Born in the desert of Arabia
Mecca and the Kabah (pilgrimage shrine)
Quraish tribecontrolled the Kabah and the economic life of Mecca
Muhammad (c. 570-632)
Early life
Born at Mecca (Quraish family)
Orphaned early
Married the widow of a rich trader
Religious experience (610)
There is no god but Allah
Becomes an uncompromising monotheist
Called to be "the Prophet"
Ignored by the Quraish of Mecca
Leaves Mecca for Yathrib (Medina)the Hijrah/Hegira (622)
Organizes a religious community
Raids on Quraish caravans
Enters Mecca (630)
The religious teachings of Islam
Islam means "submission"
Allahthe Creator God Almighty
Muhammad as the last and greatest prophet
Men and women must surrender themselves to Allah
Practical steps for salvation and the Qu'ran
Islam, Christianity, and Judaism
Jesus was a prophet but was not the son of God
Strict monotheism
Old and New Testaments as divinely inspired
Islam as a way of lifeno sacraments or clergy
The Islamic conquests
Muhammad's death
Succeeded by his father-in-law, Abu-Bakr
The caliph (deputy of the Prophet)
Military campaign against those who followed Muhammad but would not follow Abu-Bakr
Umar
Syria, Antioch, Damascus, and Jerusalem fall (636)
Egypt falls (646)
Persia subdued (651)
Visogothic Spain (711)
Explanations
Search for territory and booty
Weakness of their neighbors
Did not demand conversions
Muslims preferable to old rulers
The Shiite-Sunni schism
Shiites
Caliph Uthman replaces Umar (644)
A weak ruler
Belonged to the wealthy Umayyad family
Murdered in 656
Opponents rally around Ali
Family ties to the Prophet
Ali Murdered; Uthman's party emerged triumphant
The Shiites
Minority religious party
Insisted that only descendants of Ali and Fatimah (his wife) could rule the Muslim community (the umma)
Did not accept binding religious customs (sunna)
Sunnis
Accepted religious customs as binding
Shiite-Sunni schism continues in the present day
Umayyads and Abbasids
Westward-looking Umayyads
Capital at Damascus
A Byzantine successor state?
Goal was to conquer Constantinople
Eastward-looking Abbasids
Rule stressed Persian elements rather than Byzantine
New capital at Baghdad
The Arabian Nights
Harun al-Rashid (786-809)
After 750, Umayyad dynasty rules only in Spain
Poor relations between Umayyads and Abbasids
Competed with one another in literature and culture
Library at Cordoba had four hundred thousand volumes
Trade and industry
Major trade routes
Masters of the caravan routes
Sea routes lost to the West (tenth and eleventh centuries)
Important industries
Baghdad: glassware, jewelry, pottery, silks
Morocco and Spain: leather-working
Toledo: swords
Paperbrought about a revolution in record-keeping
Muslim society and culture, 900-1250
Cosmopolitan and dynamic society
Geographic and social mobility
At Baghdad and Cordoba, careers were open to those with talent
Treatment of women
Preserving male "honor"
The Qu'ran allowed a man four wives
The harem
Learned men
Ulamalearned men who studied religion and religious law
Sufisreligious mystics, stressed contemplation and ecstasy
Western Christian Civilization in the Early Middle Ages (The Conversion of Northwestern Europe)
A transitional period
Gregory of Tours (538-c.594)
New attitudes
A break with the Roman past
Rather than continuation, a reconstruction
Economic disintegration and political instability
Causes
Justinian's effort to reconquer the West
Excessive Byzantine taxation of agricultural lands
Islamic piracy
Western Europe
Urban life declined
Land passed out of cultivation
Too costly to maintain slaves
Coinage system broke down
Two-tier economy
Gold and silver among the wealthy
The peasantry relied on barter
Political instability
Incessant wars between kings and lords
Inability to regulate royal succession
Rivalries
Merovingian Gaul
Survival of late Roman local administration
Growth of monasteries
Massive distribution of wealth
Cultivating the rich, heavy soils of northern France
Population growth
Monasticism and conversion
Rapid increase in new monastic houses (especially seventh century)
Royal ties with monasteries
Located in rural areasChristianizing the countryside
Women and the monastic life
Conversion and missionary activity
Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)
Roman Christianity brought to southeastern England
The reign of Pope Gregory I
Worked to prevent a breach with Constantinople
Necessity of penance
The concept of purgatory
The Gregorian chant
Asserted his authority over all Western bishops
Encouraged the Benedictine rule in all Monasteries
The Rise of the Carolingians
Pepin of Heristal (d. 714) and the "mayors of the palace"
Charles "the Hammer" Martel (c. 688-741)
The second founder (after Clovis) of the Frankish state
The battle of Tours (733/734)
Developed alliances with English Benedictines in central Germany
Pepin the Short (c. 715-768)
Coronation
Integration of the Frankish monarchy into the papal-Benedictine orbit
The reign of Charlemagne (742-814, r. 768-814)
United the Frankish Kingdom through armed expeditions
Italy, Germany, and central Europe
Forcing conversion to Christianity
Counts and local administration
The comites (followers)
Administration of justice
Raising armies
Courts, tolls, and taxation
New coinage system
New capital city at Aachen
Christianity and kingship
Leading a unified Christian society
Kingship regarded as a divine office created by God to protect the Church
Religious reforms
Appointed and deposed bishops
Changed liturgy of Frankish Church
Reformed rules of worship
Prohibited pagan observances
The peasant tithe
Spiritual responsibilities of kingship the protector of the papacy
The Carolingian renaissance
The patron of poetry and learning
The court as an intellectual center
Classical learning
Alcuin of York (c. 735-804)
Correcting and copying texts
Carolingian miniscule
Charlemagne and the revival of the western Roman Empire
Charlemagne's coronation (Christmas Day, 800)
The collapse of the Carolingian empire
Louis the Pious (d. 843)the empire disintegrates
Charles the Bald, Louis the German, and Lothair
Civil wars
The Vikings
Established trading settlements in the North Sea, the Baltic, and Russia
In the 790s, Vikings began to attack coastal ports of northern Europe
Initially the desire was for profit alone
Large organized armies invade in mid-ninth century
Viking settlements in Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland
Ruled principalities in Scotland, Ireland, Normandy, and Russia
The battle of Hastings (1066)
The Vikings were not the only source of disorder
Civil wars
Muslim and Hungarian attacks
Local political rivalries
Viking invasions helped tighten the cultural and political links that kept Europe together
The legacy of the Carolingians
The European political entity
England becomes unified
Alfred the Great (871-899)
Reorganized the army, codified laws
Cultural regeneration patterned on the Carolingian example
The Saxon kings of Germany
The Carolingian example
Royal power based on conquest rather than trade and administration
Otto I defeats Hungarians using Charlemagne's lance (955)
Strengthening control of the church