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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 6
The Transformation Of Rome
Chapter Study Outline
The Challenge of Christianity
The appeal of early Christianity
The career of Jesus
First-century sources
Born in Judea
Preaching, healing, and teaching
Messianic entry (30 C.E.) into Jerusalem during Passover
Arrest
Pontius Pilate
Crucifixion
The Christ ("anointed one")
Jesus and Second Temple Judaism
The Dead Sea Scrolls
Roman control of Judea was tenuous
Zealots sought to expel the Romans by force
Destruction of the Jewish Temple (66-70)
Destruction of Jerusalem (132-135)
Judaism, monotheism, and the Covenant
Interpreting the Covenant
The Torahfirst five books of Old Testament
Sadduceeshereditary temple priesthood and aristocratic guardians
Phariseesinterpreters of religious law
Essenesradical, splinter group, spiritual deliverance through asceticism
Jesus as controversial figure
He was the Messiah promised by God to deliver Israel
Reinterpretation of Jesus's role as messiah: Greek theology
The Growth of Christianity in the Hellenistic World
Saint Paul (c. 10-c. 67)
Born at Tarsus (Asia Minor)
Converted to Christianity
Declared himself to be the apostle to the Gentiles
Rejected Jewish law as irrelevant to salvation
Making converts among Greek-speaking Jewish communities
The appeal of Christianity
Communal aspect
Early organizational structure
Role of women
Appealed to broad range of social classes
Promise of salvation
Judaism and Christianity
Hostility
Understanding the Messiah
Christianity and the Roman Empire
Treated early appearance of Christianity with indifference
Persecutions were intermittent and short-lived
By 300, 1-5 percent of total Roman population were perhaps Christians
The Challenge of Imperial Expansion Dramatic period of growth
Empire of the Severan dynasty
Emerged after period of "Five Good Emperors"
Question of "legitimate" succession
Period of civil warSeptimius Severus emerges as leader
Severus transition from Roman rule
Did not regard Rome as center of imperial rule
Ruled through the army
Caracalla succeeds Severus; extends Roman citizenship throughout the empire
Increased the tax base
Enfranchised the army
Centrality of the army as a political instrument
End of the Roman Peace
235-284 C.E.26 "barracks emperors" claimed authority
Third Century Crisisoverwhelming burden of empire
Economic and administrative challenges
Period of poverty, famine, and disease
Reorganized empire of Diocletian
The reign of Diocletian (c. 236-305; emperor 284-305)
Called himself dominus (lord)
Persian-style ceremonial deference at court
Took steps to define formal rules of imperial succession
Divided his realm in half
Diocletian took wealthier eastern half
Maxentius took the western half
The Tetrarchy ("the rule of four")
Permitted a degree of decentralization
Designed to end succession disputes
Separated military from civilian chains of command
Stabilized the currency and new system of taxation
Ruled from Nicomedia (Asia Minor), retires at Split (Croatia) in 305
The Conversion of Christianity
At beginning of fourth century, Rome less than 5 percent Christian
Christianity beginning to have an impact
Diocletian opposed to any group perceived as subversive
If not loyal to Rome's gods, citizenship was revoked
"The Great Persecution" of Christians
Results in increased interest in social justice and equality
Increasing interest in Christianity
Coincides with emergence of Neoplatonism
Constantine's conversionvision at Milvian Bridge (312)
Preparing to march on Italy and claim power
Saw vision before the battle "in this sign you will conquer"
Placed Christian symbols on banners and shields
Attempt to curry favor with local Christian warriors
True motives of conversion unclear
Victorious in battlerewarded the Christian clergy
Patronized construction of churches throughout empire
Issued Edict of Milan guaranteeing freedom of worship throughout the empire
Made Christianity a favored religion
From Imperial Sect to Imperial Institution
Christianity grew organically; not designed as a religious system
Constantine's conversion requires systemization
Institutionalization of the Church presents challenges
Doctrinal quarrels
Arians and Athanasians: the Trinity
The importance of orthodoxy
Christian theology and the classical tradition
Council of Nicea (325)
Arian heresy is condemned
Emperor presided over councils
The growth of ecclesiastical organization
Clergy and laity
Hierarchical organization
Distinctions of rank
The pope as bishop of Rome
The Petrine Succession
Changing attitudes toward women, marriage, and the body
Christianity initially favorable toward women
Jesus had many women followers
Women leaders of many early churches
Women absent from the institutional Church
Strong patriarchy of Rome
Christianity identified with Roman masculinity cults
Emphasis on asceticismalternate path to sanctity
Virginity as highest spiritual standard
The denigration of sexuality
Christians and Pagans
Christianity highly urbanized; non-Christians called paganus, a derogatory term
Christians occupy positions of power; men with political ambitions converted
Constantine religiously tolerant, successors less so
Julian "the Apostate" (360-363) abandons Christianity; attempts to restore traditional worship
Killed in battle; pro-pagan edicts reversed
Theodosius (379-395) prohibits pagan worship
Within three centuries Christianity evolves from persecuted to persecuting faith
Shifting Centers and Moving Frontiers
Constantine breaks ground on Constantinople (324)
Built on site of Byzantium
Center of communication, trade, easily defended
Political and economic center of Rome through 1453
East and West
Shift in center of power from West to East
Constantine embraces dynastic monarchy
Division of empire among his children
Internal and external pressures
Widening gap between East and West
Secessionist movements in Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, Germania, Egypt, and North Africa
Italians resented status as provincials
Rome's borders being threatened
From periphery to the center
Romans viewed neighbors as barbarians
"Barbarian" neighbors were settled agriculturalists; long-term trade relationships with Roman neighbors
By end of the fourth century many had adopted Christianity
Balance altered in mid-fourth century
Arrival of the Huns; struggle for land and resources
Goths arrive across Danube
Vandals cross into Gaul
Alaric's army attacks Rome in 410
Huns invade Roman territory under Attila
Last Roman emperor deposed in 476
Decline of the Western Empire and Rise of the East
Unable to defend itself
Armies difficult to move in an emergency
High tax rate made it difficult to collect additional revenue to support army
Low morale among population; bureaucratic style did not engender loyalty of people
East had greater wealth to maintain the military
Cities were powerful centers of industry and trade
The Shaping of a New Worldview
The classical heritage and the church fathers
Saint Jerome (c. 340-420)
Translated the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate)
Bible to be understood allegorically
Saint Ambrose (c. 340-397)
On the Duties of Ministers
God helps some Christians and not others (the gift of grace)
The life and thought of Saint Augustine (354-430)
The quest for Christianity
Archbishop of Hippo (395)
Confessions
Predestination
Doctrine of charity
On the City of God
Predestination
City of Man"live according to man"
City of God"live according to God"
The Bible contains all wisdom
A modified acceptance of classical thought
Classical Learning and Christian Life
Need to reconcile Roman identity and Christian identity
Had to overcome desire to be both Christian and pagan at the same time
Christian intellectuals had to embrace knowledge while replacing pagan philosophy with doctrines of Christ
Christian intellectuals reinterpreted classical culture for Christian audience
Widely distributed the works of Cicero and Virgil
Preserved ancient learning
Compiled anthologies of classical texts appropriate for Christian audience
Monastic education
Monks preserved and interpreted classical texts
Basil of Caesarea in the East and Benedict of Nursia in the West developed more moderate approach to monastic life
Benedict founded monastery at Monte Cassino
Benedict's Rulecycle of daily prayers, lessons, and communal worship
Cassiodorus and the classical canon
Benedict did not admire classical culture but he needed educated monks
Introduces classical learning to the monastic curriculum
Cassiodorus, younger contemporary of Benedict
Founded monastery at Vivarium
Study of classical literature necessary to understand Bible
Set classical canon that was the basis of Christian education in the West
Encourages the copying of books
Monasteries become the centers of knowledge