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Western Civilizations, 3rd Brief Edition: A W. W. Norton StudySpace
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In This Chapter
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Chapter 5
The Civilization Of Ancient Rome
Chapter Study Outline
Introduction
Rome as bridge between Mediterranean and ancient Near East
A distinctive civilization
The "mission" of the Romans
Geographic scope of Rome
Early Italy and the Roman Monarchy
Geographical influences
Land rich enough to be attractive
Difficult to defend
The Etruscans
Non-Indo-Europeans
Etruscan confederacy
Independent city-states
Historically mysterious group
Language never full translated
The Etruscan legacy
The arch and vault
Women of high status; families traced through female line
Women participated in public life
Engaged in gladiatorial combat
Etruscan mythology contributed to Virgil's Aeneid and the story of Romulus and Remus
Greek settlements and influences
Greeks arrive as early as eighth century B.C.E.
Romans derive their alphabet from the Greek alphabet
Romans borrowed many Greek religious beliefs
Romans downplayed this and emphasized Trojan origins
The Rise of Rome
Latins cross the Alps into Italy around 2000 B.C.E.
Rome founded as early as the tenth century B.C.E.; Romans claim city founded in 753 B.C.E.
Rome develops along Tiber River
Develops into major commercial port and crossroads of trade
Emergence of the concept of the "Latin Right"
Early government monarchical with patriarchal king
Not an absolute monarchy; subject to Council of Elders
Seven kings said to have ruled in succession
The Early Republic
Constant warfare to acquire land
Etruscan territories to the north
Greek poleis in the south
Incorporation of conquered peoples
Did not impose heavy burdens on conquered peoples
Conquered people had to contribute soldiers to the Roman army
Strong emphasis on agriculture
The government of the early Republic
Slow political evolution
Substituted two consuls for the king
Consuls had full executive and judicial authority
Each consul could veto the other
Senate had legislative authority and control over public funds
Government included concept of dictator in periods of emergency
Social Structure
Patricians had wealth, power, and influence
Plebeian "common" people represented 98 percent of population
The "Struggle of the Orders"
Tribunes created to protect the right of plebeians.
The Law of the Twelve Tables
Codified the law
Perpetuated ancient customs
The concilium plebis
Slow shift to an aristocracy of wealth rather than birth
The equestrians
Men who had wealth and influence but chose business over politics
Some underwrote political careers of relatives
Distinction between a democracy and a republic
Roman Identity
Fundamentally conservative
Influence of mos maiorum "custom of the ancestors"
Strong identification with Roman homeland
Significant power for the father's "patria potestas"
Roman religious traditions similar to the Greeks
Strong connections between religious and political life
Dual roles of the priests
Republic to Empire
The Punic Wars
The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.E.)
Roman fear of Carthaginian expansion
Carthage cedes Sicily to Rome
Rome seizes Corsica and Sardinia
The Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.E.)
Carthaginian expansion in Spain
Rome declares war
Role of Hannibal (247-182 B.C.E.)
The victory of Scipio Africanus
Carthage abandons all territory save Carthage
The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.E.)
"Carthage must be destroyed"
Romans massacre Carthaginians
Territorial expansion
Increase in Roman territory (Sicily, North Africa, and Spain)
Policy of westward expansion
Greece and Macedon become Roman provinces (146 B.C.E.)
Consequences of Imperialism
Transformations
New wealth poured into Rome
Increasing social and economic inequality
Small farmers left the land for the cities; difficult to manage careers as soldiers and farmers
Economic and social changes
Slavery
Increase in slave population
Two hundred thousand Greek and Carthaginian slaves by end of second century B.C.E.
Slaves used as agricultural laborers
Dependence on slave labor inhibits industrialization and technological initiative
Slave labor not just physicalincludes technical and professional jobs
Almost no reason for paid labor at all
Notion of "bread and circuses" to keep people entertained
Equestrians made contact with Eastern markets
Operated mines, built roads, collected taxes, principal moneylenders
Enormous appetite for foreign luxury goods
Change in values
Introduction of "free marriage"
New rules for divorce
Wives gained greater legal independence
Upper-class Romans adopted Greek customs
Emergence of bilingualism: Latin and Greek language
Greek was the literary language; Latin the language of trade and commerce
Epicureanism and Stoicism
Lucretius (98-55 B.C.E.)
On the Nature of Things
Stoicism
Introduced around 140 B.C.E.
Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.)
"Father of Roman eloquence"
Tranquility of the mind is the highest good
Man is indifferent to pain and sorrow
Bringing the best of Greek philosophy to Rome
Religion
Spread of Eastern mystery cults
A more emotional religion
Combination of Egyptian and Asian influences
"Restoring the Republic:" The Struggle for Power (146-30 B.C.E.)
Period of turbulence, disorder, war, assassinations, and insurrections
Spartacus slave uprising (73-71 B.C.E.)
Reforms of the Gracchi
Tiberius Graachus (168-133 B.C.E.)
Redistribution of land to landless
Invoked old laws restricting size of estate to be owned by each citizen
The murder of Tiberius
Gaius Graachus (159-123 B.C.E.)
Empowered equestrian class; checked abuses of the senatorial class
Stabilized price of grain in Rome
Suggested full citizenship to Italian allies
The murder of Gaius
The aristocratic reaction
Marius (157-86 B.C.E.)
Elected consul in 107 B.C.E., reelected six times
Abolished property qualification for the army
Army became more loyal to him than to the Republic
Specter of potential civil war
Sulla (138-78 B.C.E.)
Appointed dictator (82 B.C.E.)
Extended Roman citizenship throughout peninsula
Led his troops in march on Rome
Exterminated his opponents
Extended the power of the Senate
After three years as dictator retired in luxury
Caesar's Triumphand His Downfall
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Gaius Julius Caesar, and Marcus Junius Crassus (Pompey) conspire to gain control of the government
Enter into triumvirate; soon dissolved into open rivalry
Pompey (106-48 B.C.E.) orchestrates his election as consul
Declared Caesar (while away in Gaul) an enemy of the republic
Has ambition to become king
Julius Caesar's Return to Rome (c. 100-44 B.C.E.)
Crosses the Rubicon River; intends to take Rome by force
Destroys the forces of Pompey at Pharselus (48 B.C.E.)
Dictator for ten years, then declares himself dictator for life (46 B.C.E.)
Had full authority to make war and peace
Controlled the revenue of the state
Expanded citizenship to Hispania and Gaul
Relieved economic inequalities; expanded colonization
Develops Julian calendar
Contemporaries feared he intended to make himself king
Assassinated on the Ides (15th) of March (44 B.C.E.) on the Senate floor
The Principate and Early Empire (27 B.C.E.-180 C.E.)
Octavian (63 B.C.E.-14 C.E.)
Joined forces with Marc Antony and Marcus Ledipus
Murder of Cicero
Crushing the republican opposition
Brutus and Cassius punished
The battle of Actium (31 B.C.E.)
The Augustan system of government
Senate votes for Octavian as emperor calls him Augustus ("worthy of honor") (27 B.C.E.)
Augustus rules as princeps ("first citizen")
Republican institutions intact, but power resides with Augustus
Controls the army, freely determines all government policy
Achievements
New coinage system
Public services
Appointed and supervised tax collectors; removed incentives to take additional money from people
Defender of traditional values
Augustus to Trajan
Continued expansion
Holds northern border at the Rhine and Danube
The Roman Peace (Pax Romana)
Tiberius (14-37 C.E.) and Claudius (41-54 C.E.)
Nero (54-68 C.E.) and Domitian (81-96 C.E.)
The "Five Good Emperors"
Nerva (96-98 C.E.)
Trajan (98-117 C.E.)
Hadrian (117-138 C.E.)
Antoninus Pius (138-171 C.E.)
Marcus Aurelius (171-180 C.E.)
Romanization and assimilation
Pax Romana was not universal
Roman massacres in Britain and Judea
Assimilating the residents of conquered territories
The spread of Roman cultural forms (amphitheaters, baths, paved roads)
Rights of citizenship extended
Borders and frontiers
Culture and Life in the Period of the Principate
Golden and Silver Ages of Literature
The Golden Ageextolling the virtues of Romepropagandistic in nature
Virgil (70-19 B.C.E.)the Ecologues and the Aeneid
Horace (65-8 B.C.E.)the Odes
Livy (59 B.C.E.-17 C.E.)History of Rome
Ovid (43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.)the Metamorphosis
The Silver Ageself-conscious artifice
Petronius (fl. first century C.E.)
Apuleius (fl. second century C.E.)The Golden Ass
Juvenal (c. 55-140 C.E.)the Satires
Tacitus (c. 55-120 C.E.) Germania and Historiae
Art, architecture, and engineering
Art imported from conquered territories
The wealthy wanted art for their homes; as the demand increased, the Romans relied on copies
Grand public architecture to delicate wall paintings
The Pantheon and the Colosseum
Engineering feats
Roads and bridges
Aqueducts
Sewage systems
Roman law
Product of the Principate
Wider field of jurisdiction
Augustus appoints eminent jurists to deliver opinions on certain legal issues
Three branches
Civil lawthe law of Rome and its citizens (both written and unwritten)
Law of the peoplesearly international law
Natural lawa product of nature and of philosophy